Dictionary of Advaita Vedanta
mi Quotations
About the Dictionary
Dedication
To Sabda Brahman
Publishing data
Dictionary of Advaita Vedanta in Quotations
©2012, Amphibia Publishing, Vancouver, Canada
ISBN-978-0-9784507-3-1
Contact
The Compiler will be grateful for your comments and suggestions to improve the Dictionary: avdiq_comment@amphibia.com
Epigraph
“Most of the terms of Eastern schools of philosophy cannot be defined, like the terms of Western philosophy. They are symbolical
and do not indicate particular concepts. Words such as Atma, Buddhi, Dharma, Karma, etc., have meaning according to the con¬
text in which and the occasion and the time at which they are used or occur. Atma, for instance, may mean many things, ranging
from the Supreme Self via te soul (whatever it means) to the body, the lowest form of the “self”...
The symbols of traditional psychology and many of the terms of Oriental philosophy are hints and cannot be equated with the
terms of Western philosophy. Eastern and Western philosophy, traditional psychology and the modern outlook, cannot meet, un¬
less the modern thinker finds his way back to the wisdom which is hidden in his unconscious and contains the wide world of an¬
cient, but perennial, traditions.”
Mees G. H. The Revelation in the Wilderness.
Introduction
Purpose and description
The need for a dictionary of Indian philosophy existed already in the VI Century B.C., when Nirukta, a glossary treating etymology,
particularly of obscure words, mostly those occurring in the Vedas, was compiled. Its glosses were very brief, and wisdom was
passed on largely by word of mouth. Now, for better or for worse, things are different. Words are usually read, and dictionaries are
critical. On hearing a word in a rich context, as in a guru’s answer to one’s question, - understanding happens by itself. If, how¬
ever, an unknown word crops up in a philosophical text, say in an Upanishad, one often falls into a black hole: the context does
not clarify the word, and the only way to understand it is to wait in suspension for another context. Understanding augments but is
still incomplete. Then again, another occurrence. And so it continues until a basic concept is formed. The Sanskrit vocabulary of
Indian philosophy is famous for its fluidity and contextual dependency of meanings, which become even more elusive in English
translation.
The Dictionary offers an unusual approach to solve the problem of contextuality of Sanskrit terms. It presents a mosaic of contexts
for each head word, even its definitions are often drawn from a variety of sources. Every context reveals a facet of the word, and
their combined action accelerates and improves the process of understanding.
The Dictionary contains 350 head words, with thousands of quotations from 112 primary and secondary literature sources, and
1400 cross-references.
The Dictionary covers only the basic stock of the vocabulary of Advaita Vedanta, and it is especially useful for the new learners.
The reader is warned against taking any text in the Dictionary for granted. The texts are exact citations, and may reflect arguable
positions or even mistakes of their authors. For instance, Wikipedia says that the Katha Upanishad “propounds a dualistic philos¬
ophy”. Hardly any Advaitin will agree with that. Still, such statements are present in the Dictionary, mostly in the General subsec¬
tions, in accordance with the principle of non-interference with the cited text. And of course, a certain diversity of opinion stimu¬
lates the student’s critical ability.
Traditions of Advaita Vedanta
The Advaita Vedanta entry in the Dictionary gives the general description of the darshana. Within it there are many traditions - big
and small, almost identical and yet vastly different in form, preferred themes, priorities and terminology. Texts of five major Advaita
Vedanta traditions, complemented by general sources, provide the material for citations.
Academic literature is represented rather sparsely because of the practical orientation of the Dictionary. Unlike Western philos¬
ophies, in Indian darshanas texts are subservient to the practical dimension, and very often when separated from practice they
simply do not make sense. That is why the Dictionary is based primarily on the texts written by practitioners of Advaita Vedanta.
Affiliation of the sources is shown with an unusual prominence in the Dictionary. Why? Because the central subject, non-duality, is
so simple that there is nothing to say about it, therefore the whole game shifts to the way how the individual teachers manage to
speak and yet say nothing about Nothing. Even a very brief acquaintance with the lives and teachings of the five founders of the
Advaita Vedanta traditions selected for the Dictionary, suffices to prove the point.
Narayana Guru tradition
The Narayana Guru tradition is the least known among the major traditions and the most philosophical of them all. Knowledge is
foremost, and the devotional component is derivative. Knowledge is the closest English word to the Malayalam arivu (see in the
Dictionary), used by Narayana Guru (1854-1928) to describe one of the central notions of his philosophy. With knowledge at the
centre of his exposition of the Advaita system, the absolutist outlook and dialectical method become its natural ingredients.
Nataraja Guru (1895-1973), a direct disciple of Narayana Guru, founded the Narayana Gurukula movement to continue the tradi¬
tion. The next guru was Guru Nitya Chaitanya Yati (1924-1999), the current Head of the Narayana Gurukula is Guru Muni Naraya¬
na Prasad (1938-).
Ramakrishna tradition
Ramakrishna is not a typical Advaita Vedanta teacher. His tantric and bhakti allegiances were more in the public eye. Why then is
his tradition included in the Dictionary? At least for two reasons.
First, he taught his most prominent disciples, such as Vivekananda, Brahmananda, Nirmalananda and others in the Advaita Ve¬
danta tradition, and their published texts are incontestably Advaitic.
Second, the Ramakrishna Math with its publishing division, and other organizations in the Ramakrishna tradition belong to Advai¬
ta Vedanta and have done perhaps more than anyone else, apart from the Sankara tradition, to propagate it both as theory and
practice.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana Maharshi did not associate himself with any particular system of thought. He was equally supportive of any path leading
one to one’s true Self. Still, his teaching has much in common with Shankara’s school, and his deep knowledge and fundamental
agreement with the Advaitic thought shine unmistakably throughout his recorded talks and the few writings.
The most famous form of Ramana Maharshi’s teaching was silence. Few people, however, are good students in silence, therefore
Ramana Maharshi also had to talk. The source texts of his tradition are almost exclusively based on notes made by his listeners
and devotees.
Ramana Maharshi had a very rare talent of explaining concepts incomprehensible for the everyday human intellect in clear, suc¬
cinct and natural words. It is a real boon for a dictionary like this.
Sankara tradition
The Sankara tradition is central to Advaita Vedanta. Its literature, used in this Dictionary, includes both Sankara’s own works and
works of his followers. There were different interpretations of primary texts and various trends even within the tradition itself, but
the grain of this dictionary is not intended to catch such fine details. In many texts of this tradition the line between primary sourc¬
es and associated commentaries is more blurred than in more recent traditions, therefore one has to be especially vigilant to the
context. If a citation is not quite clear, the reader is advised to consult the referenced text.
Sivananda tradition
Sivananda’s tradition in Advaita Vedanta was widely propagated by his disciples. Swami Krishnananda and Swami Chinmayanan-
da were especially successful in explaining the basics of Advaita to the Western audience. Literature of this tradition counts hun¬
dreds of items, from scholarly treatises to study courses conducted at the Yoga-Vedanta Forest Academy and Vedanta Centres in
many countries.
How to use the Dictionary
General principles
The Dictionary is easy to use, its structure allows the reader to see multiple meaningful units of the same and adjacent levels at
once, as constellations. Such presentation is natural for our visual perception, therefore understanding of the system of words is
faster and deeper than by reading the usual linear text.
Finding words:
a) Browsing is self-evident.
b) Keyword searching is often overlooked, although it is a powerful tool to find a word not only in the position of head word, but
also in descriptions and other microtexts. It is also the only practical way to find words that have no entries of their own. For in¬
stance, the word “Consciousness” occurs in many entries, such as Atman, Chaitanya, etc., but not as a separate entry because of
its non-Sanskrit origin. The same holds true for several other Western words that are important in translations but non-existent in
the original texts. They are Absolute, Mind, Awareness, Soul, and so forth. They are all searchable.
Students of Advaita may enjoy reading the Dictionary as a book, wandering within clusters of words, or jumping to linked concepts,
or even randomly browsing entries until attention singles out a word, and the reader immerses into the important topic to satisfy a
fleeting interest in one entry, or obtain a deeper insight by means of a thread of words or an interlinked system of descriptions.
Dictionary entry
The Dictionary is a compilation of quotations from Advaita Vedanta texts and general works on Indian philosophy (see “Literature
sources”).
Each dictionary entry is a distillation of knowledge about its headword from an array of texts. Entries have subsections, see below.
Although the pattern of subsections for each type of entry is essentially the same, they are filled differently in many cases. Each
entry was built from bottom up, and it contains only what was found about its head word in the sources. For instance, if there were
no appropriate descriptions found, there is no Descriptions subsection in the entry.
The patterns of subsections are not carved in stone, they vary when changes improve the entry as an interface between the read¬
er and the meaning of the word.
There are three types of dictionary entries, each with different subsections that are described below:
1. General entry
2. Person
3. Text
In some cases definitions or descriptions of the same term, coming from different sources, are almost identical. The reason for
including such apparent tautology is to show that the same meaning of the term exists in different schools. Occasionally, it helps to
gain a better understanding, which is the sole purpose of the Dictionary.
Many words are used both in Advaita Vedanta and in other schools. How to determine if it is an Advaita term or not? First, in some
cases it is explicitly stated in the word entry. Secondly, if the word is explained in an Advaita source, such as Sankara’s or Naraya-
na Guru’s philosophical works, then it may be deduced to belong to Advaita Vedanta. Sometimes there is no difference between
the usage of a word in Advaita Vedanta and in a broader context. Most of the times, however, differences exist, but they are so
subtle that the learner can ignore them until the need to know them becomes apparent.
The Dictionary is far from being finished, and it has word clusters at different stages of completeness. More words are gradual¬
ly being introduced; interlinking between words improves and reveals new patterns of concepts; subsections are optimized, and
many other things are happening.
1. General entry
Variant spellings
Sanskrit words are very often transliterated into English in multiple forms. The most common spelling is used for the head word,
other variants are stored under this heading. They are searchable.
Definitions
Definitions are brief logical descriptions of the head word. Sources may offer differing definitions, plus their briefness leaves much
out. Often they need elaboration which can be found in Descriptions and other subsections of the word entry.
Descriptions
A description is a context in which the head word reveals its meaning through analogy, comparison or a host of other means. Of¬
ten several related words participate in the same description, reinforcing each other’s clarification and facilitating their learning.
Etymology
The origin of a word sheds a unique light on its meaning. Whenever possible, etymology is added.
Related words
Without knowing words that are closely associated with the head word, its meaning will always be incomplete. The most common
relations between words are marked in the Dictionary as
Broader term, e.g. for “Tat-tvam-asi” the Broader term is “Mahavakya”;
Opposite, e.g. for “Cetana” the Opposite is “Jada”.
Other relationships are not marked explicitly, they are clear from the context.
Sanskrit
The Sanskrit form of the head word.
Meditation
Some words are so elusive to description that almost the only means to understand them is by means of meditation. An example
is “Turiya”. Whenever possible, such meditations are provided.
Compiler s note
The only place apart from the About the Dictionary section, where the Compiler’s voice can be heard. One of the underlying princi¬
ples of the Dictionary was to reduce any text other than citations to a minimum.
2. Person
Name
The referent of the head word may have different names, and each of those names may have spelling variants. This subsection
collects all such forms for the head word in one place.
Descriptions
Descriptions are not comprehensive, rather they depict separate traits or facets of the personality under consideration. Some of
them are more telling than volumes of dry prose.
Life
The life story is as brief as possible due to the format restrictions.
Teachings
Teachings of Indian sages are not always easy to describe, they are always an integral part of their lives. It is especially hard to
accomplish in a few words. However, when appropriate citations were found, they were included in the Dictionary.
Works
Under this heading publications, foundation of religious organizations, consecration of temples, - anything important is described.
Related words
There are usually strong associations with names which reveal a lot. For instance, related words for Sivananda are yoga and Ve¬
danta, while for Ramana Maharshi it’s moksha.
3. Text
Title
Surprisingly few books have fixed titles. Even such canonical texts as Bhagavadgita and Brahma Sutras have more than one vari¬
ant. All such variants along with the Sanskrit title are corralled in this subsection.
Author(s)
Old Indian texts are notorious for the absence of the names of their authors. Reconstructed names of ancient authors, as well as
variants of names of known ones are presented here.
Descriptions
In accordance with the concept of the Dictionary, descriptions are brief narrations about anything deserving special attention re¬
garding the text.
Synopsis
When possible, a synopsis is provided. Again, it has to be a citation - if no such citation was found, there is no synopsis for the
text.
Commentaries
In India commentaries are often more important for understanding primary texts, e.g. sutras, than the texts themselves. The most
important and generally recognized commentaries are listed here.
Publications
The lists are not intended to be comprehensive, they offer the more easily available editions of the text.
Related words
As in the case of other words in the Dictionary, related words may be an easy way to understand some important facets of the
text.
External links
In most cases, external links lead to full texts available online.
Abbreviations and conventions
[ ] - additions to the original text by someone who is citing it. Additions by the compiler are marked as follows: [... - Compiler’s
Note],
Transliteration of Sanskrit
Head words are “anglicised”, their form has no diacritical marks or other typographical idiosyncrasies of the academic romanised
Sanskrit that cannot be entered from the standard English language keyboard. Such forms, though incorrect in theory, can be
searched and have other practical value for the English-speaking learner of Advaita Vedanta.
The use of diacritical marks in the word entries is not consistent throughout the Dictionary as a result of the lack of unified ap¬
proach to it in the source texts. It was considered undesirable to make changes in them. Consequently, some Sanskrit words have
more than one spelling variant in English, ex. sakti, shakti, and sakti.
List of works cited
Works by tradition
General
Chakravarti. Lectures on Hindu Religion
Chakravarti, I. C. 1893, Lectures on Hindu Religion, Philosophy and Yoga, Calcutta, pp. 158. U. C. Shome.
Dasgupta. A history of Indian philosophy
Dasgupta, S. 1922-1955, A history of Indian philosophy, University Press, Cambridge.
Dasgupta. Hindu Mysticism
Dasgupta, S. N. 1927, Hindu mysticism, Open Court Pub. Co., Chicago.
Davies. Bhagavad Gita
Davies, J. 1882, Hindu philosophy : The Bhagavad Gita: or, The sacred lay: a Sanskrit philosophical poem, Houghton, Mifflin, Bos¬
ton.
Deussen. Outlines of Indian Philosophy
Deussen, P. 1907, Outlines of Indian philosophy : with an appendix on the philosophy of the Vedanta in its relations to occidental
metaphysics, K. Curtius, Berlin.
Deussen. The System of the Vedanta
Deussen, P. & Johnston, C. 1912, The system of the Vedanta, The Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago.
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Jones, C. & Ryan, J. D. 2007, Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Facts On File, New York.
Encyclopedia of philosophy
Borchert, D. M. 2006, Encyclopedia of philosophy, Thomson Gale/Macmillan Reference USA, Detroit.
Encyclopedia of religion
Jones, L., Eliade, M. & Adams, C. J. 2005, Encyclopedia of religion, Macmillan Reference USA, Detroit.
Dictionary - Grimes
Grimes, J. A. 1996, A concise dictionary of Indian philosophy : Sanskrit terms defined in English, State University of New York
Press, Albany.
Hiriyanna. Outlines of Indian philosophy
Hiriyanna, M. 1994, Outlines of Indian philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi.
Hume. The thirteen Upanishads
Hume, R. E. & Haas, G. C. O. 1975, The thirteen principal Upanishads : translated from the Sanskrit, with an outline of the philos¬
ophy of the Upanishads and an annotated bibliography, Oxford University Press, H. Milford, London, Oxford, New York.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Lochtefeld, J. G. 2002, The illustrated encyclopedia of Hinduism, The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc., New York.
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, [Online], Available from: <http://www.iep.utm.edu/> [2011],
Lurker. Dictionary of Gods
Lurker, M. 2004, The Routledge dictionary of gods, goddesses, devils and demons, Routledge, London.
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
Mees, G. H. 1985, The Revelation in the Wilderness, dealing with the revelation of the meaning of the symbolism contained in the
traditions of old in the wilderness of the mind and of the modern world, Kanvashrama Trust, Tiruvannamalai, India.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
Monier-Williams, Monier(1899, 1964). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-864308-X. Re¬
trieved 2008-03-06 from “Cologne University” at http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/index.php?sfx=pdf
Muller. The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy
Muller, F. M. 1899, The six systems of Indian philosophy, Longmans, Green, New York [etc.].
Muller. The Upanishads, Part 1
Muller. The Upanishads, Part 2
Muller, F. M. 1879, The Upanishads, The Clarendon press, Oxford.
Macdonell. Vedic mythology
Macdonell, A. A. 1897, Vedic mythology, K.J. Trubner, Strassburg.
Radhakrishnan. Eastern Religions and Western Thought
Radhakrishnan, S. 1939, Eastern religions and western thought, The Clarendon press, Oxford.
Radhakrishnan. Philosophy of Upanishads
Radhakrishnan, S. 1924, The philosophy of the Upanisads, G. Allen & Unwin ltd.; New York, London.
Raja. Theories of Meaning
Raja, K. K. 1977, Indian Theories of Meaning, The Adyar Library and Research Centre, [S.l.].
Dictionary - Runes
Runes, D. D. 1942, The dictionary of philosophy, Philosophical Library, New York.
Srinivasa. Outlines of Indian philosophy
Srinivasa Iyengar, P. T. 1909, Outlines of Indian philosophy, Theosophical Pub. Society, Benares.
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Theos Bernard, T. 1947, Hindu philosophy, Philosophical Library, New York.
Whitney. Sanskrit roots
Whitney, W. D. 1885, The Roots, Verb-Forms and Primary Derivatives of the Sanskrit Language, Breitkopf and Hartel, Leipzig.
Wilson. The Vishnu Purana
Wilson, H. H. & Hall, F. 1864, The Vishnu Purana: a system of Hindu mythology and tradition, tr. from the original Sanskrit, and
illustrated by, notes derived chiefly from other Puranas, Trubner, London.
Wikipedia
Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 2009-2012.
Narayana Guru
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Narayana, Guru & Nataraja, Guru. 2006, One hundred verses of self-instruction (Atmopadesasatakam), Gurukula Pub. House,
Varkala, Kerala.
Nataraja. Bhagavad Gita
Nataraja, Guru. 1961, The Bhagavad Gita; a sublime hymn of dialectics composed by the antique sage-bard Vyasa, Bombay.
Nataraja. Dialectics
Nataraja, Guru. 2010, Dialectics, D.K. Printworld, New Delhi.
Nataraja. Integrated Science of the Absolute
Nataraja, Guru. 2001, An integrated science of the absolute : based on the “Darsana mala” (Garland of visions) by Narayana
Guru, D. K. Printworld, New Delhi.
Nataraja. Saundarya lahari
Sankaracarya & Nataraja, G. 2005, Saundarya lahari : the upsurging billow of beauty of Sankaracarya, D.K.Printworld, New Delhi.
Nataraja. The Philosophy of a Guru
Nataraja, Guru. 1986, The Philosophy of a Guru, Narayana Gurukula, Varkala, Kerala, India.
Nataraja. The word of the Guru
Nataraja, Guru. & Narayana, Guru. 2003, The word of the Guru : the life and teachings of the Guru Narayana, D.K. Printworld (P)
Ltd., New Delhi, India.
Nataraja. Vedanta Revalued and Restated
Nataraja, Guru, Vedanta revalued and restated, Narayana Gurukula Hq., Varkala.
Nataraja. Wisdom’s frame of reference
Nataraja, Guru. 1973, Wisdom’s frame of reference and other essays, Narayana Gurukula, Varkala.
Nitya. An intelligent man’s guide to the Hindu religion
Nitya Chaitanya, Y. 1976, An intelligent man’s guide to the Hindu religion, Narayana Gurukula Foundation, Varkala.
Nitya. Bhagavad Gita
Nitya Chaitanya, Y. 1993, The Bhagavad Gita : a sublime hymn of Yoga, D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd., New Delhi.
Nitya. Brhadaranyaka Upanisad
Nitya Chaitanya, Y. 1993, The Brhadaranyaka Upanisad : with original text in Roman transliteration, English translation and ap¬
pendices, {D.K.} Printworld.
Nitya. Experiencing the Isavasya Upanishad
Nitya Chaitanya, Y. 1992, Experiencing the Isavasya Upanishad, Narayana Gurukula, Fernhill, India.
Nitya. Isa Upanishad
Nitya Chaitanya, Y., Living the Lord Within : A Commentary on the Isavasya Upanishad, Narayana Gurukula, Varkala, Kerala,
India.
Nitya. Love and Blessings
Nitya Chaitanya, Y. 2003, Love and Blessings: The Autobiography of Guru Nitya Chaitanya Yati, Narayana Gurukula.
Nitya. Meditations on the Self
Nitya Chaitanya, Y. 1974, Meditations on the Self, Narayana Gurukula, Varkala.
Nitya. Narayana Guru
Nitya Chaitanya, Y. & Indian Council of Philosophical Research. 2005, Narayana Guru, Indian Council of Philosophical Research,
New Delhi.
Nitya. Pranayama
Nitya Chaitanya, Y. 1979, Pranayama: Harmonization of the Vital Energies, Narayana Gurukula.
Nitya. Principles and practice of Patanjali’s Yoga
Nitya Chaitanya, Y. & Patanjali. 2009,Living the science of harmonious union : principles and practice of Patanjali’s Yoga Sastra,
D.K. Printworld, New Delhi.
Nitya. Psychodynamics of Pranava
Nitya Chaitanya, Y. 1997, Psychodynamics of Pranava, Nitya Books, Fernhill, India.
Nitya. Saundaryalahari of Sankaracarya
Nitya Chaitanya, Y. 1994, Saundaryalahari of Sankaracarya, East West University Press, Bainbridge Island, WA, USA.
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
Nitya Chaitanya, Y. & Narayana, Guru. 2003,That alone, the core of wisdom : a commentary on Atmopadesa Satakam, the one
hundred verses of self-instruction of Narayana Guru, D.K. Printworld, New Delhi.
Nitya. The Allegories and Symbolism in Valmiki’s Ramayana
Nitya Chaitanya, Y. 1993, The Allegories and Symbolism in Valmiki’s Ramayana’, Gurukulam Magazine, vol. IX.
Nitya. Psychology of Darsanamala
Nitya Chaitanya, Y. & Narayana, Guru. 2004,The Psychology of Darsanamala, D.K. Printworld, New Delhi.
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Prasad, N. 2005, Life’s pilgrimage through the Gita : a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, D.K. Printworld, New Delhi.
Prasad. Chandogya Upanisad
Prasad, N.M. 2007, Chandogya Upanishad : with the original text in Sanskrit and roman transliteration, D.K. Printworld, New Delhi.
Prasad. Darsanamala of Narayana Guru
Prasad, N.M. 2007, Garland of visions : Darsanamala of Narayana Guru, D.K. Printworld, New Delhi.
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Prasad N.M. 2003, The philosophy of Narayana Guru, D.K. Printworld, New Delhi.
Prasad. Three Acharyas and Narayana Guru
Prasad, N.M. 2011, Three acharyas and Narayana Guru : the ongoing revaluation of Vedanta, D.K. Printworld, New Delhi.
Ramakrishna
Nirmalananda. Commentary on the Bhagavad Gita
Nirmalananda Giri, S. 2008, A Commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, Atma Jyoti Ashram.
Nirmalananda. A Commentary on the Upanishads
Nirmalananda Giri, S. , A Commentary on the Upanishads, [Online], Atma Jyoti Ashram, Available from: <http://www.atmajyoti.org/
pdfs/Upanishad-Commentary-full.pdf>.
Nirmalananda. The Word That is God
Nirmalananda Giri, S. 2004, The Word That is God : Scriptures and Masters on Om, Atma Jyoti Press, Borrego Springs, CA.
Ramakrishna. Sayings of Sri Ramakrishna
Ramakrishna. 1965, Sayings of Sri Ramakrishna, the most exhaustive collection of them, their number being 1120, Sri Ramakrish¬
na Math, Madras.
Ramakrishna. Tales and parables of Sri Ramakrishna
Ramakrishna, 1986, Tales and parables of Sri Ramakrishna, Sri Ramakrishna Math ; Bourne End : Ramakrishna Vedanta Centre
[distributor], Madras.
Ramakrishna. The gospel of Sri Ramakrishna
Ramakrishna, Gupta, M. N., Nikhilananda & Sri Ramakrishna Math, M. 1964, The gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, Sri Ramakrishna
Math, Madras.
Sarvananda. Mandukya Upanishad
Gaudapada, Sharvananda, S. & Series AE-Uni. Title: Upanishad series. 1982, Mandukyopanishad : including original verses,
constructed text (anvaya) with a literal word by word translation, English rendering of each stanza, copious notes, introduction and
a summary of Gaudapada’s Karika, Sri Ramakrishna Math, Madras.
Vivekananda. Complete works
Vivekananda, Swami, 1863-1902. 1973, The complete works of Swami Vivekananda vol 3, Advaita Ashrama, Calcutta.
Vivekananda. Jnana Yoga
Vivekananda. 1902, Vedanta philosophy : lectures by the Swami Vivekananda on jnana yoga, The Vedanta society, New York.
Vivekananda. Raja Yoga
Vivekananda & Patanjali. 1920, Vedanta philosophy, raja yoga, being lectures, Brentano’s, New York.
Vivekananda. The science and philosophy of religion
Vivekananda. 1972, The science and philosophy of religion a comparative study of Sankhya, Vedanta, and other systems of
thought, Udbodhan Office, Calcutta.
Ramana Maharshi
Cohen. Guru Ramana
Cohen, S. S. 2003, Guru Ramana; memories and notes, Sri Ramanasramam, Tiruvannamalai.
Iyer. At the Feet of Bhagavan
Sundaresa Iyer, T. K. 2005, At the Feet of Bhagavan, Sri Ramanasramam, Tiruvannamalai, India.
Osborne. The collected works of Ramana Maharshi
Ramana & Osborne, A. 2006, The collected works of Ramana Maharshi, Sophia Perennis, Hillsdale, N.Y.
Nagamma. Letters from Sri Ramanasramam
Nagamma, S. 2006, Letters from Sri Ramanasramam : volumes I & II, Sri Ramanasramam, Tiruvannamalai.
Nirmalananda. Bhagavad Gita
Bhagavad Gita - Maharshi, R. & Nirmalananda Giri, S. 2004, The Holy Song of God : Arranged for singing, Atma Jyoti Ashram.
Ramana. Maharshi’s Gospel
Ramana, M. 2002, Maharshi’s Gospel : books I & II : being answers of Bhagavan Sri Ramana Maharshi to questions put to him by
the devotees, Sri Ramanasramam, Tiruvannamalai.
Ramana. Ramana Smrti
1980, Ramana smrti, Sri Bhagavan’s Birth Centenary Celebrations Committee, Tiruvanamalai.
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
Ramana. 2006, Talks with Ramana Maharshi, Sri Ramanasramam, Tiruvannamalai, S. India.
Ramana. Teachings of Ramana Maharshi in his own words
Osborne, A. 2002, The teachings of Bhagavan Sri Ramana Maharshi in his own words, Sri Ramanasramam, Tiruvannamalai.
Ramana. The Silent Power
Ramana, M. 2002, The Silent Power, Sri Ramanasramam, Tiruvannamalai, S. India.
Ramana. Upadesa saram
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A
Abhasa
Variant spellings
abhasa
abhasa
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Abhasa — ... “the shining forth”; appearance; emanation, manifestation, creation, semblance; conduct motivated by selfish desire
1. Fallacy, according to Jainism.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
abhasa - splendour, light; colour, appearance; mere appearance, fallacious appearance Vedantas.; reflection; (in log.) fallacy,
semblance of a reason, sophism, an erroneous though plausible argument (regarded by logicians as of various kind).
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Abhasa ... the shining forth, (in KasmTr Saivism), the immanent or active phase of consciousness (also called srsti,); (in Vedanta)
the immanent aspect of the Ultimate Principle (Brahman), the manifest world is said to be merely an appearance (abhasa); (in
Nyaya) fallacious reasoning.
Wikipedia
abhasa - splendour, light, appearance, shining forth.
Ramana Maharshi tradition2
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
M.: Bhuma (Perfection) alone is. It is Infinite. There arises from it this finite consciousness taking on an upadhi (limiting adjunct).
This is abhasa or reflection. Merge this individual consciousness into the Supreme One. That is what should be done.
Some say that mind arises from consciousness followed by reflection (abhasa); others say that the abhasa (reflection) arises first
followed by the mind. In fact both are simultaneous.
Descriptions
General
Radhakrishnan. Philosophy of Upanishads
...the individual is a mere abhasa or appearance of Brahman.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Brhadaranyaka Upanisad
The nature of the Supreme is described as untainted pure consciousness. The pure light that falls on a colored object such as
green silk or a red flower changes its color quality as soon as it illuminates those objects. This taint which brings transformation is
called abhasa. Similarly pure consciousness is not experienced by the individuated mind. That which shines in a person’s mind is
abhasa caitanya, tainted or colored consciousness. That is why a person is not fit to reveal the Supreme.
Ramakrishna tradition
Vidyaranya. Panchadashi, tr. Swahananda
32. ‘Abhasa’ means slight or partial manifestation... It does not have the properties of the real entity but resembles it in having
some of them.
See also:
in Vritti: Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
in Sarira: Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
Etymology
General
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
abhasa - from prep, a = “to, forth” + root bhas = “to shine”.
Related words
Chaitanya
Sanskrit
Abhasa — 3TRTTH
abhasa - snwr
Abhava
Variant spellings
abhava
abhava
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Abhava — ... nonexistence; absence; negation; nothing
1. The Nyaya, Vaisesika, Bhatta Mlmargsa, and Dvaita Vedanta schools hold that nonexistence is a distinct category. The Buddhist
schools deny the existence of negation altogether, as do the Prabhakara Mimargsa and Visistadvaita Vedanta schools.
2. Nonexistence has two main divisions: (i) the absence of one entity in another (sarhsarga- abhava), which is of three kinds: (a)
prior nonexistence (prag-abhava), (b) annihilative nonexistence (pradh- varhsa-abhava, and (c) absolute nonexistence (atyan-
ta-abhava); (ii) one object not being another (anyonya-abhava) or reciprocal nonexistence.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
abhava -
non-existence, nullity, absence;
proof from non-existence (one of the six pramanas in Vedanta phil. (‘since there are no mice, therefore there must be cats here’)
see pramana);
annihilation, death.
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Abhava ... non-existence, a means of correct knowledge (pramana), defined as the deduction of the existence of one of two oppo¬
site things from the non-existence of the other; (in Nyaya) this is included in inference (anumana).
Wikipedia
According to the Vaisheshika school, all things which exist, which can be cognised, and which can be named are padarthas (literal
meaning: the meaning of a word), the objects of experience. All objects of experience can be classified into six categories, dravya
(substance), guna (quality), karma (activity), samanya (generality), visesa (particularity) and samavaya (inherence). Later Vaisesi-
kas added one more category abhava (non- existence). The first three categories are defined as artha (which can perceived) and
they have real objective existence. The last three categories are defined as budhyapeksam (product of intellectual discrimination)
and they are logical categories.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Meditations on the self
Abhava — Absence, or the non-occurrence of an event; non-becoming.
Descriptions
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Vaisheshika admits of six philosophical categories, with a seventh controversial category added later. The six original categories
are (1) substance, which consists of nine eternal realities that compose the foundation of the universe; substance is divided into
(a) “atoms” of each of the five main elements or MAHABHUTAS and (b) time, ether, space, and soul; (2) attribute, of which there
are 24; (3) karma, action or motion; (4) samanya, “generality,” that which characterizes all the members of a given class; (5) vishe-
sha or particularity, which distinguishes one member of a class from another; and (6) samavaya, “relation,” or combination, that is,
the relationship that exists between substance and its qualities. A seventh category, “non-existence” (abhava), was added later to
deal with certain philosophical difficulties of the system.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Integrated Science of the Absolute
Although the term abhava as used in ordinary language means nothingness, according to the Nyaya (Logic) school of philosophy,
it is counted as a padartha (i.e. a category of existence). Even according to the a Advaita philosophy, abhava is non-different from
its counterpart bhava (being). Before the pot originated, its non- existence is to be attributed to the clay. In other words, it is the
clay that remains as the prior non-existence of the pot. Therefore the non- existence prior to the origination of the pot has its ante¬
rior existence which is stated to be the clay. To state this another way, the non- existence of the pot and the existence of the clay
are the same. But in reality even after the origin of the pot what is the being of the pot is a supposition, and the being of the clay
is real. The non-existence of a certain object always resides in the existence of another thing. As the clay constitutes the anterior
non- existence of the pot, it remains as another entity. Similarly, before the origin of the world its non-existence remains something
which is none other than the Absolute. In other words, it is the Absolute alone. But from the Absolute which is without change of
form, how this world with all its different forms came about is a matter that cannot be decided on the basis of inferential reasoning
(anumana), etc. Therefore, that non- existence which was the cause of the origination of the world and is non- different from the
Absolute is described here as the principle of indeterminate possibility. In other words, Maya - is the non-existent - is the Absolute.
Nataraja. Saundarya lahari
There are four kinds of non-existence acceptable to the Nyaya school of Indian logic, which are: anterior non-existence (prag
abhava), mutual non-existence (anyonyabhava), ultimate non-existence (latyantabhava) and posterior non-existence (pradh-
vamsabhava). All these four forms of non-existence are known in Tantra sastra as padartha (‘word content’ or ‘substance’). Abha¬
va (nonexistence) is one of the seven significant substances (padarthas) categorized by the Nyaya school, negation being consid¬
ered as real as minus one in mathematics. It is quite real to say that one got five of the ten oranges from a shop on credit, which
would not mean that the debt is not real; it is real in a negative sense.
Such are some of the intricacies of Indian logic, tacitly accepted by Vedanta.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
abhava - from the verb root bhu = “to be become, exist”; and a = “not”.
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
abhava - from neg. part, a = “not” + bhava = “becoming”; root bhu = “to become”.
Related words
Bhava
Pramana
Sanskrit
Abhava — 3WF^
abhava -
Abhaya
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Abhaya — ... fearlessness; without fear (from a = “not, without” + bhaya = “fear”)
1. The divine virtue of fearlessness is a state of steadfastness in which one is not swayed by the fear-bom inner or outer enemies.
2. Abhaya mudra is a symbolic gesture formed by raising one hand with the palm outward, meaning “do not fear.” Many deities,
saints, and idols are depicted with this gesture. It is the hand gesture of fearlessness; or “seal of fearlessness.” All fear is ultimate¬
ly groundless for one’s true nature is bliss. (See mudra.)
3. In Advaita Vedanta, abhaya is equivalent to liberation (moksa).
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
abhaya -
unfearful, not dangerous, secure;
fearless, undaunted;
N. of Siva;
absence or removal of fear, peace, safety, security;
a kind of symbol procuring security;
a sacrificial hymn recited to obtain personal security
Descriptions
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Perceiving the all-underlying Reality in oneself, and what is Real in oneself as underlying everything, makes one free of all fears.
For this reason, this wisdom is often considered a synonym for fearlessness (abhaya). He who sees himself as existing separate,
on the other hand, always fears the “other”; indeed he fears everything. His life in effect is a continuous search for security.
Nitya. Brhadaranyaka Upanisad
The Brhadaranyaka Upanisad teaches the great dictum, abhaya vat brahma, “fearlessness is the mark of Self-realization.”
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
abhaya — from a = “not, without” + bhaya = “fear”.
Sanskrit
Abhaya —
abhaya -
Abhyasa
Variant spellings
abhyasa
abhyasa
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Abhyasa — ... continuous endeavor; constant practice; repetition; exercise; exertion.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
abhyasa -
reaching to, pervading;
... prospect, any expected result or consequence.
Wikipedia
‘Abhyasa’, in Hinduism, is spiritual practice which is regular and constant practice over a long period of time. It has been pre¬
scribed by the great sage Patanjali Maharishi in his Yoga Sutras, and by Lord Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita as an essential
means to control the mind together with Vairagya.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Abhyasa : Continued practice or repetitively doing something of high value.
Descriptions
General
Muller. The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy
Now all these actions or functions [of the mind, etc.] have to be restrained, and in the end to be suppressed, and this is said to be
effected by exercises (Abhyasa) and freedom from passions (Vairagya).
Indian philosophers have the excellent habit of always explaining the meaning of their technical terms. Having introduced for the
first time the terms exercise and freedom from passion, Patanjali asks at once: ‘What is Abhyasa or exercise?’ Abhyasa is gener¬
ally used in the sense of repetition, but he answers that he means hereafter to use this term in the sense of effort towards steadi¬
ness (Sthiti) of thought. And if it be asked what is meant by steadiness or Sthiti, he declares that it means that state of the mind,
when, free from all activity (Vntti), it remains in its own character, that is, unchanged. Such effort must be continuous or repeated,
as implied by the term Abhyasa.
This Abhyasa is said to become firmly grounded, if practised for a long time thoroughly and unintermittingly.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
... Krishna shows how to gently tame your mind by detaching yourself from the things with which you are infatuated. Also how, by
continuous abhyasa, continuous practice, you can make it learn to love everything as aspects of the one Being or the one Su¬
preme. How, by maintaining vairagya, detachment, and doing abhyasa continuously, you will one day be able to make your mind
fully in harmony with your vision of oneness.
Abhyasa and vairagya
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
M.: Abhyasa and vairagya are necessary. Vairagya is the absence of diffused thoughts; abhyasa is concentration on one thought
only. The one is the positive and the other the negative aspect of meditation.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
abhyasa - from abhi - “toward” + the verb root as = “to throw”.
Related words
Vairagya
Sanskrit
Abhyasa — 3TV3TTH
abhyasa - srqyrtr
Acharya
Variant spellings
acharya
acarya
acarya
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Acarya — ... preceptor; teacher; spiritual guide; monk-scholar; master.
1. A title affixed to the names of learned spiritual individuals. Technically, it is a person who lives according to the scriptures (scps-
tra) of a particular tradition. It is “knowing or teaching the acara or rules of conduct.” The title applies especially to one who invests
the student with the sacrificial thread and instructs one in the Vedas.
2. According to Jainism, one stage of the ascetic order. Their duties are to initiate people in the spiritual path; to guide, instruct,
and correct those aspirants; and to govern and regulate the monks of the Order.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
acarya -
‘knowing or teaching the acara or rules’, a spiritual guide or teacher (especially one who invests the student with the sacrificial
thread, and instructs him in the Vedas, in the law of sacrifice and religious mysteries;
the title acarya affixed to names of learned men is rather like our ‘Dr.’.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Acharya. Traditional term of respect for a religious leader or a spiritual teacher; the word connotes great learning as well as a reli¬
gious life. The term literally means someone who knows or teaches about achara, the traditionally accepted way of life prescribed
in the dharma literature. As a title in modern Hindu life, it indicates the respect and social standing conveyed by the English word
doctor.
Wikipedia
In Indian religions and society, an acharya... is a guide or instructor in religious matters; founder, or leader of a sect; or a title af¬
fixed to the names of learned men. The designation has different meanings in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and secular contexts.
Acharya is also used to address a teacher or a scholar in any discipline, e.g.: Bhaskaracharya, the mathematician.lt is also a com¬
mon suffix in Brahmin names, e.g.: Krishnamacharya, Bhattacharya. In South India, this suffix is sometimes shortened to Achar,
e.g.: TKV Desikachar. In the social order of some parts of India, acharyas are considered as the highest amongst the brahmin
community often described as the “shrestha brahman” i.e. best in brahmins.
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Acharya : Teacher, especially one with religious authority.
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Acarya: A teacher or preceptor. In the Vedantic context, any of the various commentators on the basic scriptures - the Upanisads,
Brahma Sutras of Badarayana and the Bhagavad Gita.
Descriptions
General
Wikipedia
In Hinduism
In the Hinduism, an acharya (3iHlG0 is a Divine personality (H'^T^r) who is believed to have descended (srTTK) to teach and
establish bhakti in the world and write on the philosophy (Rfrufr) of devotion to God (TTTPT).
Examples of acharyas in the Hindu tradition are:
Adi Sankaracharya
Ramanujacharya
Madhvacharya
Nimbarkacharya
Vallabhacharya
Caitanya Mahaprabhu
Acharya Shree Koshalendraprasadji Maharaj - (Swaminarayan Sampraday - NarNarayan Dev Gadi)
Acharya Shree Rakeshprasadji Maharaj (Swaminarayan Sampradaya - LaxmiNarayan Dev Gadi)
In Jainism
In Jainism, an Acharya is a monk who is one of the five revered panch- paremeshtis, and thus worthy of worship. The word “Suri”
is equivalent to Acharya.
An Acharya is the highest leader of a Jain order. He is the final authority in his monastic order and has the authority to ordain new
monks and nuns. He is also authorized to consecrate new idols, although this authority is sometimes delegated to scholars desig¬
nated by him.
Some sects, for example the Terapanthi Svetambaras, have a single Acharya. Others have multiple independent Acharyas.
An Acharya, like any other Jain monk, is expected to wander except for the four months of the monsoon (varsha- vas). The Bhat-
tarakas, who head institutions, are technically junior monks, who are permitted to stay in the same place.
Osho (Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh), who was born into a Jain community, was known as Acharya Rajneesh until 1971, because he
was a college professor at one time. Although he remained unmarried, he was never a Jain monk.
In Buddhism
In Buddhism, the Pali variant acariya, lit. “teacher”, is one of the two teachers of a novice monk, the other being the upadhyaya.
In Mahayana traditions the epithet acharya was more widely used as an honorific indicating great scholastic renown; it was some¬
what more general than the similar epithet pandita. The Tibetan term loppon is used to translate acharya.
Acharya (Degree)
In Sanskrit institution Acharya is a Post Graduate Degree.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
acarya - from the verb root car = “to go” + the prefix a = “toward”; hence to approach.
Wikipedia
The term “Acharya” is most often said to include the root “char” or “charya” (conduct). Thus it literally connotes “one who teaches
by conduct (example),” i.e. an exemplar.
Sanskrit
Acarya — 3ii^i4
acarya -
Adharma
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Adharma — ... demerit; unrighteousness; failure to perform one’s proper duty; medium of motion
1. Generally speaking, the word stands for unrighteous action or lawlessness. Such behavior stems from a lack of virtue or righ¬
teousness.
2. Jainism understands this concept as totally different from what it means in all the other systems of Indian philosophy. According
to Jainism, it means the principle of rest which pervades the entire universe. It is one of the five categories included in the term
nonself (ajiva). Along with the medium of motion (dharma), it is considered to be responsible for the systematic character of the
universe. Without it, no substance could remain at rest.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
adharma -
unrighteousness, injustice, irreligion, wickedness; demerit, guilt
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Adharma. In the dharma literature, this term designates the absolute opposite of dharma, the fundamental values that serve to
uphold society. Although adharma can denote a particular unrighteous action, it more widely implies a state of affairs in which so¬
ciety has been completely corrupted; the values that uphold society have been subverted, overturned, or ignored and hence such
particular unrighteous actions become possible, even likely.
Wikipedia
Adharma is the Sanskrit antonym of Dharma. It means ‘that which is not in accord with the law’ - referring to both the human writ¬
ten law and the divinely given law of nature. Connotations include unnaturalness, wrongness, evil, immorality, wickedness, or vice.
Related words
Opposite: Dharma
Sanskrit
Adharma —
adharma - srsppr
Adhisthana
Variant spellings
adhisthana
adhisthana
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Adhisthana — ... basis; substratum; ground.
1. According to the Bhagavad Gita, one of the five factors necessary for an action.
2. According to Advaita Vedanta, the Absolute (Brahman) is the only real adhisthana.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
adhisthana -
standing by, being at hand, approach;
standing or resting upon;
a basis, base;
the standing-place of the warrior upon the car;
a position, site, residence, abode, seat;
a settlement, town, standing over;
government, authority, power
Wikipedia
Adhishthana(m) is a term with multiple meanings which can mean: seat; basis; substratum; ground; support; and abode.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Adhisthana: That on which everything rests.
Descriptions
General
Dasgupta. A history of Indian philosophy
In ordinary illusion some defect is necessary but the illusion of this world-appearance is beginningless, and hence it awaits no
other dosa (defect) than the avidya (nescience) which constitutes the appearance. Here avidya is the only dosa and Brahman is
the only adhisthana or ground. Had there not been the Brahman, the self-luminous as the adhisthana, the illusory creations could
not have been manifested at all. The cause of the direct perception of illusion is the direct but indefinite perception of the adhistha¬
na. Hence where the adhisthana is hidden by the veil of avidya, the association with mental states becomes necessary for remov¬
ing the veil and manifesting thereby the self-luminous adhisthana. As soon as the adhisthana, the ground, the reality, the blissful
self-luminous Brahman is completely realized the illusions disappear. The disappearance of the phenomena means nothing more
than the realization of the self-luminous Brahman.
Etymology
General
Wikipedia
The Sanskrit word literally means “standing over” and conveys ideas of taking possession, dwelling within, presence, protection,
and sovereignty.
Related words
Adhyasa
Sanskrit
Adhisthana — STf^sjM
adhisthana -
Adhyaropa
Variant spellings
adhyaropa
adhyaropa
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Adhyaropa — ... superimpositon; incorrect attribution; erroneous knowledge
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
adhyaropa —
(in Vedanta phil.) wrong attribution, erroneous transferring of a statement from one thing to another
Sankara tradition
Sadananda. Vedantasara, tr. Nikhilananda
32. Adhyaropa is the superimposition of the unreal on the real, like the false perception of a snake in a rope which is not a snake.
[Adhyaropa—A synonym of the word Adhyasa, has been defined by Sankara as “The apparent recognition of something previous¬
ly observed in some other thing.” As for instance, we find the appearance of silver in a mother-of-pearl or water in a mirage.]
Descriptions
Sankara tradition
Karapatra. Advaita Bodha Deepika
M.: The non-dual Being-Knowledge-Bliss or the Supreme Brahman is the Reality. Just as the false name and form of snake is
superimposed on a rope, so also on the non-dual Reality there is superimposed the category of sentient beings and insentient
things. Thus the names and forms which appear as the universe, make up the superimposition. This is the unreal phenomenon.
D.: In the Reality which is non-dual, who is there to bring about this superimposition?
M.: It is Maya.
D.: What is Maya?
35. M.: It is the ignorance about the aforesaid Brahman.
D.: What is this Ignorance?
M.: Though the Self is Brahman, there is not the knowledge of the Self (being Brahman). That which obstructs this knowledge of
the Self is Ignorance.
D.: How can this project the world?
M.: Just as ignorance of the substratum, namely the rope, projects the illusion of a snake, so Ignorance of Brahman projects this
world.
Adhyaropa-apavada
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Adhyaropapavada — the “method or theory of prior superimposition and subsequent denial”
1. By this method, one first superimposes illusory attributes on an attributeless entity and then subsequently denies or removes
them. This technique is used by Advaita Vedanta to lead an aspirant to the knowledge of the nondual Self (Atman).
2. See apavada.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Brhadaranyaka Upanisad
... the Vedantins have made a device of judging a superimposition in contrast to a valid ground of knowledge. They draw a distinc¬
tion between the ground and its superimposition. The negation of the superimposition is called apavada and the superimposition
itself is called adhyaropa. Consequently certain admissions are tentatively accepted as real and later rejected as unreal. Here the
terms superimposition, sublation and the assertion of the unreal are all held to be epistemologically valid. Therefore, in higher phi¬
losophy such as in brahmavidya, ordinary logic is not admissible. In the course of this Upanisad we will find that the arguments of
several erudite philosophers, after being stated, are judged to be only partially valid and are therefore labeled one-footed logic.
Related words
Adhyasa
Apavada
Sanskrit
Adhyaropa —
adhyaropa - Wvm i d h
Adhyasa
Variant spellings
adhyasa
adhyasa
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Adhyasa — ... superimposition; illusion; false attribution
1. The imposition of a thing on what is not that thing (atasmims-tad-buddhih). It is of two kinds: svarGpa-adhyasa and samsar¬
ga-adhyasa. The former consists in superimposing an illusory (mithya) object on something real; i.e., superimposing an illusory
snake on a real rope, which is an example of an ordinary error, or of superimposing ignorance (avidya) and the empirical world
upon the Absolute (Brahman), which is an example of a foundational error. Samsarga-adhyasa is the superimposition of an attri¬
bute on an object. This relation is false (mithya); i.e., to superimpose redness upon a crystal which is in the immediate physical
proximity of a red object.
2. It may also be divided into (i) artha-adhyasa (the superimposition of an object upon a substratum) and (ii) jnana-adhyasa (su¬
perimposition of the knowledge of the former upon the knowledge of the latter).
3. A third division of adhyasa is (i) dharma-adhyasa (superimposition of objects) and (ii) dharmi-adhyasa (superimposition of attri¬
butes).
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
adhyasa -
imposing (as of a foot);
(in phil.) = adhy-aropa; an appendage
Wikipedia
Adhyasa. Throwing over or casting upon; misconception or erroneous attribution, the significance being that the mind casts upon
facts, which are misunderstood, certain mistaken notions; hence false or erroneous attribution. Equivalent to Adhyaropa. Simply
put Adhyasa means superimposition or false attribution of properties of one thing on another thing.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Wisdoms frame of reference
Adhyasa: Superimposition; false attribution; illusion. Adhyasa is of two forms:
Svarupa-adhyasa and Samsarga-adhyasa.
Svarupa-adhyasa consists in superimposing an illusory (mithya) object on something real.
Example: Seeing a snake on a real rope, or of superimposing ignorance (avidya); the empirical world upon Brahman, which is an
example of a foundational error.
Samsarga adhyasa is the superimposition of an attribute on an object. This relation is false (mithya).
Example: A transparent crystal placed on a red silk appears to be red.
Sankara tradition
Sadananda. Vedantasara, tr. Nikhilananda
Adhyasa: Superimposition; the erroneous attribution of reality to phenomenal things.
Descriptions
General
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Adhyasa (“superimposition”). In Advaita Vedanta ... this is a key concept used to explain the ultimate unreality of the world around
us, despite its apparent reality. For the Advaita Vedanta school, there is ultimately only one real idea in the universe, namely Brah¬
man. All things are in fact that one thing, and this never changes. Since Brahman is the all in all, it can never actually be an object
of perception (pratyaksha). What the Advaitins then have to explain is how things in the world apparently change, or seem diverse
and different. This is explained as stemming from our mistaken perception and understanding. They call this notion adhyasa,
which is rooted in the human tendency to “construct” a picture of world. According to this explanation, human beings superimpose
a false understanding (that reality is diverse and differentiated) on top of the correct understanding (that all reality is nothing but
undifferentiated Brahman). According to the Advaitins, the world is real because Brahman is real. What is not real is the world as
most unenlightened people perceive it.
Advaitins illustrate this concept by two well-known errors in judgment: the case of a rope that one briefly mistakes for a snake, or a
post that one imagines is a man. Although these judgments are erroneous—as one quickly discovers— they are not made up out
of nothing. In each case, one is perceiving something real—the rope and post both actually exist—but “superimposing” a different
and mistaken identity on these things, and thus “transforming” them into something they are not. In the same way, it is argued,
human consciousness begins with the Supreme Reality (Brahman), which is actually there, but superimposes onto it something
which is not (the judgment of a diverse world).
According to the Advaitins, the real problem is epistemological, that is, how human beings come to know things, rather than in the
nature of the things themselves. One comes to a true understanding not when the things themselves change—to refer back to the
example, the rope always was and always will be a rope—but with the destruction of the mistaken notions that led to the initial er¬
ror, and their replacement by true understanding. For the Advaitins, adhyasa is a manifestation of avidya (lack of true knowledge);
this avidya is reinforced and upheld by the karmic power of one’s mistaken thoughts and actions. Adhyasa immediately disappears
at the moment true understanding is gained, when one comprehends that the world (and oneself) are both nothing but Brahman.
This moment of realization brings ultimate wisdom that can never be lost, just as that once one has recognized the piece of rope, it
can never again become a snake.
Wikipedia
According to Advaita Vedanta error arises on account of the superimposition of one reality on another. Adi Shankara defines Ad¬
hyasa as “the apparent presentation, to consciousness, by way of memory of something previously observed in some other thing”.
Adhyasa is the illusory appearance, in another place, of an object seen earlier elsewhere. It is similar in nature to recollection. For
instance on seeing a rope in dim light and not recognizing it as a rope, a person mistakes it for a snake which he has seen else¬
where. The snake is not absolutely unreal, because it is actually experienced, and produces the same effect, such as fear and so
on, as a real snake would. At the same time, it is not real, because it is no longer seen when the rope has been recognized. It is
therefore described as Anirvachaneeya or what cannot be classified as either real or unreal.
Adi Shankara further points out in his Adhyasa bhashya on the Brahma Sutras that, when there is superimposition of one thing
on another, the latter (the substratum) is not affected in the least by the good or bad qualities of the former, (e.g., nacre does not
become more valuable because it is mistaken for silver, nor does a rope get the qualities of the snake which it is mistaken for).
The implication of this statement is that the self which is identical with Brahman does not undergo any of the changes, nor does it
experience any of the joys and sorrows, of the body, mind and organs which are superimposed on it. It is, however, only because
of this mutual superimposition of the self and the non-self that all action, both secular and religious, including the study of Vedanta,
becomes possible. The self, by itself, is neither a doer of actions, nor an enjoyer of the results. It becomes a doer and an enjoyer
only because of this superimposition, as a result of which, as Adi Shankara says, the real and the unreal, namely, the self and
the non-self, are blended into one, as it were.. All action, including the various rites laid down in the Vedas, thus come within the
sphere of Avidya or nescience, which is the cause of the superimposition.
Adhyasa is of two kinds. When a rope is mistaken for a snake, the snake alone is seen. The existence of the rope is not known at
all. Here the snake is said to be superimposed on the rope. This is known as Svarupa-Adhyasa. The second kind of superimposi¬
tion is when a crystal appears to be red in the proximity of a red flower. Here both the crystal and the flower are seen as existing,
and the redness of the flower is attributed to the crystal also. This is known as Samsarga- Adhyasa. Both these kinds of Adhyasa
are present in the mutual superimposition of the self and the non-self.
Because of the superimposition of the non-self on the self, the existence of the self is not recognized at all, and the non-self, (that
is, the body, mind and organs), is alone recognized as existing. This is Svarupa-Adhyasa. In the superimposition of the self on
the non- self, only the existence and consciousness aspects of the self are attributed to the body, mind and organs. This is Sam-
sarga-Adhyasa. The result of this mutual superimposition is that every one identifies himself with the body. This is the root cause
of all suffering. Giving up this wrong identification with the body-mind complex and realizing that one is the self which is beyond
all suffering and all the pairs of opposites such as heat and cold, success and failure and so on, is Vidya or knowledge. It is this
knowledge that is contained in the Upanishads.
Svarupa-Adhyasa is also known as Nirupadhika-Adhyasa or superimposition without a limiting adjunct or Upadhi. The superim¬
position of an illusory snake on a rope is of this type. Upadhi has been defined by Bhaskararaya in his commentary on the name
Nirupadhih (No.154) in the Lalitasahasranamabhasya as Upa samipe adadhati sviyam dharmam that which imparts its own quality
to an object near it. A red flower which makes a transparent crystal near it look red is an upadhi. The superimposition of the red
colour on the crystal is a superimposition with upadhi and it is known as Sopadhika-Adhyasa, which is the same as samsarga- ad¬
hyasa.
In the superimposition of the snake on the rope, the substratum is considered to be the rope. But the rope itself is not real, and is
a superimposition on Brahman or pure Consciousness. Therefore it is said in Vedanta that the substratum is Rajju-upahita chait-
anyam or pure Consciousness apparently limited by the rope. Every object in this world should therefore be looked upon as Brah¬
man limited by that object or Brahman in the form of that object Sarvam khalu idam brahma. The illusory snake is described as
Pratibhasika or illusory; the rope, like everything in this world, is Vyavaharika or empirical reality. Brahman alone is Paramarthika
or absolute reality. The aim of Vedanta is to enable one to attain this realization.
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Memory is at the basis of our vision of the manifested world. This is the theory of adhyasa or superimposition, well-known to Ve-
dantic thought. The reality that we attribute to the objects we see is to be traced to their source by a process of reasoning which
goes from effect to cause. Such a philosophical way of enquiry is natural and normal to the human mind. We always ask ourselves
about the “how”, “why” or “what” of things. All things must have a cause, and science is what reveals the cause behind effects
which constitute all the appearances in which we all live.
Adhyasa (superimposition) has been defined as the grafting by memory of something which does not belong to the place or con¬
text. It is a special or particular instance of wrong perception. The associative or apperceptive masses that are formed by our long
contact with objects in our past, however long, are not lost, but remain as samskaras or conditioning unit factors which colour our
present vision giving it a “reality” which is not really there. Subtle associative unit masses of habitual forms called vasanas (ten¬
dencies) operate to shape or determine our present view of things.
Nataraja. Wisdoms frame of reference
The conditioning of one type of thought by the other, which is called adhyasa, by which what is meant to be symbolic is treated as
actual and vice-versa, has been the fecund cause of monstrous errors in the matter of religion and theology in both the East and
the West, even from the most ancient of times.
See also:
in Advaita Vedanta: Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Etymology
General
Wikipedia
adhyasa - from adhi “above, over” + the verbal root as “to throw, cast”.
Related words
Adhisthana
Adhyaropa
Pratibhasika
Sanskrit
Adhyasa — 3TV2TTH
adhyasa - srsprRT
Adhyatma
Variant spellings
adhyatma
adhyatma
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Adhyatma — ... personal; individual; of the supreme Self; supreme; spiritual; pertaining to the self.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
adhyatma -
the Supreme Spirit; own, belonging to self
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Adhyatma: Loosely translated as spirituality. Strictly, that kind of knowledge which tries to understand the Reality in everything,
with one’s self-existence as the point of reference.
Nataraja. Vedanta Revalued and Restated
Q. What is adhyatma (that which pertains to the Self) ?
A. Svabhava (one’s proper nature)
Descriptions
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Nirmalananda. Bhagavad Gita
Adhyatma firstly is the principle of the indwelling Brahman in all beings as their Eternal Witness. But it is also the principle of the
individual spirit’s eternal distinction from Brahman which enables it to manifest and dwell in many forms in succession. The power
which brings this embodiment about is karma in its fundamental nature. So from this we see that karma is not only a reaction, but
the action that originates our coming into relative existence. Karma both initiates and maintains the rebirth process.
Etymology
General
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
adhyatma - from adhi = “to make a basis,” and atma - “oneself or the self”.
Related words
Brahman
Sanskrit
Adhyatma — Ich
adhyatma -
Advaita
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Advaita — ... nondualism; nonduality; “not-two”
1. A term used to indicate a position of nonduality adopted by various Indian schools of thought. Advaita Vedanta adopts a posi¬
tion of absolute nonduality while all other uses of the term accept internal distinctions within their various types of monisms. Thus,
in its latter usages, it signifies the interconnectedness of everything which is dependent upon the nondual One, Transcendent
Reality.
2. Advaita Vedanta is commonly referred to as Advaita because it was the first and, perhaps, the greatest exponent of this idea.
It is one of the six orthodox (astika) schools of Indian philosophy and the first school of Vedanta philosophy. It has no individual
founder, for its roots are to be found in the Vedas, and particularly the Upanisads— though its greatest exponent is Sankaracarya
Bhagavatpada. Its central teaching is the oneness of the individual soul (jlva) with the Absolute (Brahman). It affirms the nondu¬
ality of Brahman, the nonreality of the empirical world, and the nondifference between the individual soul and Brahman (brahma
satyam, jagan-mithya, jlvo brahmaiva naparah). Its basic source books are the Upanisads, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Brah-
ma-sGtra. (See prasthana-traya.)
3. The key concept in Advaita Vedanta is ignorance (avidya/maya). This explains the otherwise perplexing distinction between
the formless (nirguna) and the having form (saguna) Brahman, between the nondual Reality appearing as individuals and as God
(Tsvara). It accounts for Advaita’s metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
advaita -
destitute of duality, having no duplicate;
peerless;
sole , unique;
epithet of Vishnu;
non-duality;
identity of Brahma or of the Paramatman or supreme soul with the JTvatman or human soul;
identity of spirit and matter;
the ultimate truth;
title of an Upanishad.
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Advaita: Non-duality. The final establishment of unitive vision, when the vestiges of every shade of duality, whether psychological
or cosmological, have been transcended by the man of philosophical vision.
Nitya. Love and Blessings
Advaita: Literally, not two. The doctrine which maintains that all duality as between self and other, seer and seen, and knower and
known is purely illusionary. Ultimately refers to the supremely blissful state of being one with all.
Descriptions
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Advaita (non-dual, from the root dvi, or two) is a term used to describe the unitary philosophies and religious movements in India.
Rather than a definition of these schools of thought as unitary or monist, the negative description is generally used. Advaita is
usually translated as “non-dual.” Duality would imply that there is more than one reality; non-duality implies that there is nowhere
a second to the one reality.
A number of philosophies in Indian tradition are conventionally called advaita. Their characteristics vary considerably. Best known
is “absolute advaita,” formulated by the Vedanta founder SHANKARA, in which the individual self, and all apparently separate
selves, are understood to be nothing but the ultimate Self, that is, non-dual with it; there are no distinctions between selves. A fur¬
ther aspect of Shankara’s advaita system is that the world is false or MAYA, illusion. Only the one BRAHMAN is true.
The views of RAMANUJA and VALLABHA are also technically referred to as advaita or non-dualistic, as both their systems main¬
tain that individual selves are nothing but the ultimate Self. However, they both also include qualifying language to show that they
do not hold Shankara’s absolute view. In their understanding, the highest Self or brahman is God and therefore has certain inher¬
ent characteristics that distinguish it from any other self. No individual self can possess the power and supremacy of the divinity; in
fact, both Ramanuja and Vallabha see the individual selves as being distinct from each other. Similarly, Ramanuja and Vallabha
qualify their advaita belief that the world or universe is in fact nothing but the divinity: from another perspective the world is differ¬
ent from the divinity.
Many other Vedantins similarly could be called advaita with these sorts of reservations. They sometimes use terms like Dvait-
advaita (nondualist and dualist) or BHEDABHEDA (both different and non-different). Philosophically they are quite similar to Ra¬
manuja and Vallabha.
Finally, most TANTRIC philosophical systems are also termed advaita or non-dual. In these cases, the individual self is under¬
stood as being precisely brahman, God or Goddess, with no reservations. The power inherent in the divinity is understood to
belong to any individual, at the highest level of realization. The world too is understood to be non-dual with the divinity.
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
Mastership over self, Victory over the Fallen Man, perfect alignment of the fragments of the soul, Rulership of the Microcosm — all
these achievements express in their own way an aspect of what happens when the soul comes into its Own: Advaita.
The attainment of Advaita is not a peaceful sinking away into the negative nothingness which some Western philosophers have
imagined the Buddhist Nirvana and the Hindu samadhi to be. On the contrary, the attainment of Advaita or Nirvana can come only
after the Final Battle which forms an heroic feat which only few men in every age are capable of performing. It is well-known how
tradition conceives of Buddha’s encounter with Mara and his hosts before his Enlightenment under the Bodhi-Tree.
... The attainment of Advaita or Self-realization is the End of Tradition, in the senses of the purpose, the extreme limit and the
destruction of the Tradition. We shall see later that the traditions of the Twilight of the Gods have besides other meanings, these
implications.
In Advaita or At-onement the Pure Consciousness of the Mother and the Mystery of the Father, the Power of Sakti and the Being
of Siva, lose their separate identity.
In Advaita even Sin and Virtue are no more.
But as long as Advaita is not attained, the Tradition is indispensable, for no one can undergo Birth but for the Mother.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. The word of the Guru
This was the vision that had come to him at this time. All thoughts of devotion vanished at this spot, self- effaced. Sin and evil and
suffering had no place in the scheme to which the vision belonged. Good and bad, truth and falsehood faded before the uniting
principle. The visible world melted and formed part of the vision. It was not a vision that came to pass away. It was one into which
one entered to live there forever. Here was a state in which all colours and shades mingled into one white light.
It is like trying to describe the nature of light in terms of darkness to try to state exactly the nature and character of this state. Some
have tried to describe it as Nirvikalpa Samadhi. Others describe it as the state of the Paramahamsa. The Buddhists have the word
Nirvana and the conception of the Boundless Light or Amitabha, into which the individuality merges its identity. In more unsophisti¬
cated language some others call it the attainment of the Supreme Bliss or Happiness.
Some attain this only after death, and then it is Salvation or Heaven. This corresponds to the conception of Moksha in Sanskrit,
and according to this conception a man can attain Moksha while still living here on earth - this is called the state of Jivan Mukti.
By whatever special name this state is known, it is one and the same experience. This experience is in more modern language
called Cosmic Consciousness. It may be described as the experience of the whole, which leaves no remainder. It is the vision of
the supreme unity that characterises all the states referred to. There is a happy expression in Sanskrit which describes the essen¬
tial nature of this state in the least controversial form, and that expression is ‘Advaita’, which means the state in which there is no
second to speak about. The
Upanishads sum up in the boldest possible terms this conception of Advaita when they state: Tat- tvam- asi’ (That thou art’). It
was this same eternal and universal principle of which the Guru’s life was an expression.
Ramakrishna tradition
Vivekananda. Jnana Yoga
Advaita means nonduality; there are no two, but One. We see that here is a proposition that the Absolute, the One is manifesting
Itself as many through the veil of time, space, and causation. Therefore it seems that here are two, the Absolute, and Maya (the
sum-total of time, space, and causation). It seems apparently very convincing that there are two. To which the Advaitist replies
that it cannot be called two. To have two, we must have two independent existences, just as that of the Absolute, which cannot be
caused. In the first place, this time, space, and causation cannot be said to be an independent existence. Time is entirely a depen¬
dent existence; it changes with every change of our mind. Sometimes in a dream one imagines that he has lived several years; at
other times several months were passed as one second. So that time has entire dependence on our state of mind. Secondly, the
idea of time vanishes altogether sometimes. So with space, we cannot know what space is. Yet it is there, indefinable, and cannot
live separate from anything else. So with causation.
See also:
in Saguna-brahman: Hiriyanna. Outlines of Indian philosophy
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
advaita - from a = “not” + dvaita = “dual, two”.
Related words
Advaita Vedanta
Sanskrit
Advaita — 37%cT
advaita -
Advaita Vedanta
Variant spellings
Advaita Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta
Definitions
General
Wikipedia
Advaita Vedanta is a sub-school of the Vedanta (literally, end or the goal of the Vedas, Sanskrit) school of Hindu philosophy.
Other major sub-schools of Vedanta are Dvaita and Visishtadvaita. Advaita (literally, non-duality) is a monistic system of thought.
“Advaita” refers to the identity of the Self (Atman) and the Whole (Brahman).
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Saundarya lahari
Advaita Vedanta — Philosophy of non-dualism, based on a contemplative unitive approach. Unitive understanding.
Descriptions
General
Dasgupta. A history of Indian philosophy
The main idea of the Vedanta philosophy.
The main idea of the advaita (non-dualistic) Vedanta philosophy as taught by the Shakara school is this, that the ultimate and ab¬
solute truth is the self, which is one, though appearing as many in different individuals. The world also as apart from us the individ¬
uals has no reality and has no other truth to show than this self. All other events, mental or physical, are but passing appearances,
while the only absolute and unchangeable truth underlying them all is the self. While other systems investigated the pramanas
only to examine how far they could determine the objective truth of things or our attitude in practical life towards them, Vedanta
sought to reach beneath the surface of appearances, and enquired after the final and ultimate truth underlying the microcosm and
the macrocosm, the subject and the object. The famous instruction of Shvetaketu, the most important Vedanta text (mahavakya)
says, “That art thou, O Shvetaketu.” This comprehension of my self as the ultimate truth is the highest knowledge, for when this
knowledge is once produced, our cognition of world-appearances will automatically cease. Unless the mind is chastened and
purged of all passions and desires, the soul cannot comprehend this truth; but when this is once done, and the soul is anxious
for salvation by a knowledge of the highest truth, the preceptor instructs him, “That art thou.” At once he becomes the truth itself,
which is at once identical with pure bliss and pure intelligence; all ordinary notions and cognitions of diversity and of the many
cease; there is no duality, no notion of mine and thane; the vast illusion of this world process is extinct in him, and he shines forth
as the one, the truth, the Brahman.
Wikipedia
The first person to explicitly consolidate the principles of Advaita Vedanta was Adi Shankara, while the first historical proponent
was Gaudapada, the guru of Shankara’s guru Govinda Bhagavatpada.
Three levels of truth
The transcendental or the Paramarthika level in which Brahman is the only reality and nothing else;
The pragmatic or the Vyavaharika level in which both Jiva (living creatures or individual souls) and Ishvara are true; here, the ma¬
terial world is completely true, and,
The apparent or the Prathibhasika level in which even material world reality is actually false, like illusion of a snake over a rope or
a dream.
List of teachers of Advaita Vedanta
Advaita Vedanta has had many teachers over the centuries in India and other countries. This article lists some of the major teach¬
ers. Adi Shankaracharya was the most prominent in the tradition of Advaita Vedanta to formulate its doctrine in his many works.
Sages and saints
Marichi
Angiras
Atri
Yajnavalkya
Pulastya
Vashishta
Kashyapa
Vishwamitra
Jamadagni
Bharadwaja
Bhrigu
Agastya
Shri Dattatreya
Shri Ashtawakra
Vyasa
Recent Jagadgurus of Peethams
Sringeri Sharada Peetham
Sri Sacchidananda Shivabhinava Narasimha Bharathi Mahaswamiji, Jagadguru of Sringeri Sharada Peetham [1] (1865- 1912); a
realised Yogi; initiated many into Adi Shankaracharya’s philosophy including Sacchidanandendra Saraswati- founder of Adhyatma
Prakashana Karyalaya ;known as “Abhinava Shankara” because of his many tours around Bharatvarsha spreading the Advaita
Vedanta philosophy and Hindu Dharma
Sri Chandrashekhara Bharathi Mahaswamiji, Jagadguru of Sringeri Sharada Peetham (1912- 1954); A well known Jivanmukta;
said to be one of the greatest saints ever to take birth in India
Sri Abhinavavidya Tirtha Mahaswamiji, Jagadguru of Sringeri Sharada Peetham (1954- 1989); A great Yogi and master of scrip¬
tures; blessed with realisation early in life; In His many tours of Bharatvarsha and also Nepal He established many maths, shrines
and temples.
Sri Bharathi Tirtha Mahaswamiji, Jagadguru of Sringeri Sharada Peetham (1989- );A distuinguished sage and present Jagadguru
of Shringeri Peetha, Sringeri, Karnataka.
Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham
Sri Chandrashekharendra Saraswathi Mahaswamiji Jagadguru of Kanchi Kamakoti Peetam (1894- 1994), also called as Nad-
amadum Deivam(Walking God) by devotees and followers all over the world
Jagadguru Sri Jayendra Saraswathi Swami, Kanchi Kamakoti Peetam
Jagadguru Sri Sankara Vijayendra Saraswathi Swami, Kanchi Kamakoti peetam
Sapta Na Sannyasin Ruchira Buddha Adi Da Samraj Jagadguru of Naitauba Peetham the main Hermitage Ashram called “Samra-
jashram” in the Fijian Islands. Other Satguru Peethams: Mountain Of Attention Sanctuary, Love’s Point Hermitage and Tat Sunda-
ram Hermitage and Tat Sundaram Hermitage, all in Northern California; and Da Love-Ananda Mahal in Kauai, Hawaii
Other teachers
Adyashanti, popular modern Western teacher.
Shri Totapuri Maharaj, One of the Dasanami order sanyasis who initiated Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa into Advaita Vedanta.
Sri Ramakrishna (1836-1886) well-known modern proponent of Advaita; the primary source book, Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna (Sri
Ramakrishna Kathamrita), was written by an eyewitness devotee Mahendranath Gupta. It documents his later life and conversa¬
tions with disciples and devotees and serves as the key reference for his philosophy and teachings
Shri Ramana Maharshi (1879-1950) the silent sage of Tamil Nadu who had a profound realization of nonduality
Swami Vivekananda (1863-1902), disciple of Sri Ramakrishna, wrote books on four Hindu Yogas: Bhakti Yoga, Jnana Yoga, Kar¬
ma Yoga and Raja Yoga. The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda contains a complete collection of transcribed lectures. He
spoke at the Parliament of the World’s Religions in Chicago in 1893.
Sri Narayana Guru (1856-1928)- Vedic scholar, mystic philosopher, prolific poet and social reformer, from the present-day Kerala.
Mannargudi Raju Sastri (1815 -1903), Formed The Adwaita Sabha’ for propagating the tenets of the Adwaita faith
Sri Aurobindo (1872-1950) Bengali philosopher-sage who synthesized Advaita thought with Western philosophical theories of
evolution.
Swami Tapovan Maharaj - A virakta mahatma
Swami Sivananda (1887—1963), Divine Life Society. Bestowed samyasa initiation of Swami Chinmayananda, scholar, and author
of over 300 books on Hinduism, many available on the web.
Swami Karpatri (1905-1980), a well-known sannyasi of Varanasi
Swami Chinmayananda Jnana diksha bestowed under Sri Swami Tapovan Maharaj in Uttarkashi. Disciples founded the Chinma-
ya Mission. ‘Chinmaya’ = “pure consciousness of bliss”.
Shri Swami Dayananda Saraswati, (c. 1824- 1883) a contemporary Advaitin who united disparate Hindu sects under a single body
known as the Arya Samaj.
Swami Dayananda Saraswati, (c.1930-) originally student of Chinmaya above. He has set up many traditional gurukula (vedanta
schools) in India and Western countries.
Sacchidanandendra Saraswati, a profound Advaitin and the founder of the Adhyatma Prakasha Karyalaya in Holenarasipura
Sri Sai Baba of Shirdi (c. 1838-1918), a great philosopher of Maharashtra who propagated the oneness of God and urged harmo¬
ny amongst the various religions.
Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj A twentieth- century master of Advaita from Mumbai
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, founder of the Transcendental Meditation programme and movement, which have practices and philoso¬
phy firmly routed in the Advaita tradition. The TM initiation puja references Adi Shankara and the monastery set up by his devotee
Trotakacharya at Jyotir Math. This was the same monastery re- established by Sri Brahmananda Saraswati, Maharishi’s master,
often referred to as “Guru Dev.”
Sri H.W.L. Poonja (1910-1997), or Papaji. Disciple of Sri Ramana Maharshi, he denied being part of any formal tradition, and re¬
mained always available, welcoming newcomers to his home and satsangs.
Tibbetibaba - Hindu Bengali Saint whose life was based on both Advaita Vedanta and Mahayana principles.
Adi Da (1939-2008) American-born teacher of enlightenment whose followers state he is the promised Hindu Avatar and first sev¬
enth stage realizer, who has written over 70 books on “Advaitayana Buddhism”, the unique philosophy that transcends both Advai¬
ta thought and the philosophical theories of Buddhism.[2]
American yogi, Richard Hittleman, who was the first person to bring Hatha and Raja Yoga to English- speaking audiences via the
medium of a television series (in the 1950s and 1960s). His teachings were essentially those of Advaita Vedanta and Ramana
Maharshi(Richard Hittleman, Guide for the Seeker, Bantam Books, 1978, p. 92)
American yogini, Gangaji (Toni Roberson); disciple of Papaji (see above) and author of several books.
Ontology
Karya and karana
The karya (effect) and karana (cause) form an important area for investigation in all the systems of Vedanta. Two karanatvas
(ways of being the cause) are recognised:
Nimitta karanatva — Being the instrumental cause. For example, a potter is assigned Nimitta karanatva as he acts as the maker of
the pot and thus becomes the pot’s instrumental cause.
Upadana karanatva — Being the material cause. For example, the mud is assigned Upadana karanatva as it acts as the material
of the effect (the pot) and thus becomes the pot’s material cause.
Advaita assigns Nimitta karanatva to Brahman with the statements from the Vedas (only two are given below):
That Lord has created all the forms and is calling them by their names (Taitiiriya Aranyaka 3.12.7)
He thought, “Let Me create the worlds” (Aitareya Upanishad[9] 1.1.1)
Advaita also assigns Upadana karanatva to Brahman vide the statements from the Vedas (only two are given below):
Dear boy, just as through a single clod of clay all that is made of clay would become known, for all modifications is but name
based upon words and the clay alone is real (Chandogya Upanishad[10] 6.1.4)
(He thought) Let me be many, let me be born (Taittiriya Upanishad[11] 2.6.4)
The Chandogya Upanishad[10] 6.2.1 states
It is One without a second
Thus, based on these and other statements found in the Vedas, Advaita concludes that Brahman is both the instrumental cause
and the material cause.
Karya-karana ananyatva
Advaita states that karya (effect) is non- different from karana (cause). However karana is different from karya. This principle is
called Karya-karana ananyatva (the non- difference of the effect from the cause). To elaborate,
If the cause is destroyed, the effect will no longer exist. For example, if from the effect, cotton cloth, the cause, threads, are re¬
moved, there will be no cloth, i.e., the cloth is destroyed. Similarly if in the effect, thread, the cause, cotton, is removed, there will
be no thread, i.e., the thread is destroyed. This is brought out by Adi Shankara in the Brahmasutra Bhasya , commentary on the
Brahma sutra,[12] 2.1.9, as:
Despite the non-difference of cause and effect, the effect has its self in the cause but not the cause in the effect. The effect is of
the nature of the cause and not the cause the nature of the effect. Therefore the qualities of the effect cannot touch the cause.
During the time of its existence, one can easily grasp that the effect is not different from the cause. However that the cause is dif¬
ferent from the effect is not readily understood. As to this, it is not really possible to separate cause from effect. But this is possible
by imagining so. For example, the reflection of the gold ornament seen in the mirror is only the form of the ornament but is not the
ornament itself as it (the reflection) has no gold in it at all.
Adi Shankara says in the Chandogya Upaninad Bhasya, commentary on the Chandogya Upanishad, 6.3.2:
All names and forms are real when seen with the Sat (Brahman) but are false when seen independent of Brahman.
This way Advaita establishes the non- difference of effect from cause. To put it in a nutshell,
Karya is not different from karana; however karana is different from karya.
In the context of Advaita Vedanta,
Jagat (the world) is not different from Brahman; however Brahman is different from Jagat
Salvation
Advaitins believe that suffering is due to Maya, and only knowledge (called Jnana) of Brahman can destroy Maya. When Maya is
removed, there exists ultimately no difference between the Jiva- Atman and the Brahman. Such a state of bliss when achieved
while living is called Jivan mukti. While one is in the pragmatic level, one can worship God in any way and in any form, like Krishna
or Ayyappa as he wishes, Adi Shankara himself was a proponent of devotional worship or Bhakti. But Adi Shankara believes that
while Vedic sacrifices, puja and devotional worship can lead one in the direction of jnana, true knowledge, they cannot lead one
directly to Moksha.
Theory of creation
In the relative level, Adi Shankara believes in the Creation of the world through Satkaryavada. It is like the philosophy of Samkhya,
which says that the cause is always hidden into its effect—and the effect is just a transformation of the cause. However, Samkhya
believes in a sub-form of Satkaryavada called Parinamavada (evolution) — whereby the cause really becomes an effect. Instead,
Adi Shankara believes in a sub- form called Vivartavada. According to this, the effect is merely an apparent transformation of its
cause — like illusion, eg., In darkness, a man often confuses a rope to be a snake. But this does not mean that the rope has actu¬
ally transformed into a snake.
At the pragmatic level, the universe is believed to be the creation of the Supreme Lord Ishvara. Maya is the divine magic of Ish-
vara, with the help of which Ishvara creates the world. The serial of Creation is taken from the Upanishads. First of all, the five
subtle elements (ether, air, fire, water and earth) are created from Ishvara. Ether is created by Maya. From ether, air is born. From
air, fire is born. From fire, water is born. From water, earth is born. From a proportional combination of all five subtle elements, the
five gross elements are created, like the gross sky, the gross fire, etc. From these gross elements, the universe and life are creat¬
ed. This series is exactly the opposite during destruction.
Some people have criticized that these principles are against Satkaryavada. According to Satkaryavada, the cause is hidden in¬
side the effect. How can Ishvara, whose form is spiritual, be the effect of this material world? Adi Shankara says that just as from a
conscious living human, inanimate objects like hair and nails are formed, similarly, the inanimate world is formed from the spiritual
Ishvara.
Mahavakya
Mahavakya, or “the great sentences”, state the unity of Brahman and Atman. There are many such sentences in the vedas, but
one sentence from each veda is usually chosen. They are shown below
Sr. No.
Vakya
Meaning
Upanishad
Veda
1
(Prajnanam brahma)
Consciousness is Brahman
aitareya
Rig Veda
2.
anprstg|if?n (Aham brahmasmi)
1 am Brahman
brihadaranyaka
Yajur Veda
3.
(T at tvam asi)
That thou art
chhandogya
Sama Veda
4.
a-anicm (Ayamatma brahma)
This Atman is Brahman
mandukya
Atharva Veda
Hiriyanna. Outlines of Indian philosophy
The particular type of monism taught by Samkara is very old, though in its final form it owes a great deal to his contribution. Its
most distinguishing feature on the theoretical side is its conception of nirguna Brahman as the ultimate reality with the implied
belief in the.Maya doctrine, the identity of the jiva and Brahman and the conception of moksa as the merging of the former in the
latter; on the practical side, it is the advocacy of karma-samnyasa or complete renunciation with its implication that jnana and jna-
na alone is the means of release. The earliest extant formulation of this doctrine is found in Gaudapada’s Karika, which purports
to summarize the teaching of the MandGkya Upanisad, but really accomplishes much more by giving an admirable summary of
advaitic teaching. The main points of Sankara’s philosophy—its basic principles such as the inapplicability of the notion cf causal¬
ity to the ultimate reality—are already there. The most important of Sankara’s works is the bhasya on the Vedanta-sutra, which is
as remarkable for the charm of its style as for the logical consistency of its arguments.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Advaita Vedanta. One of the branches of Vedanta, the philosophical school claiming to reveal the ultimate (anta) teaching of the
ancient sacred texts known as the Vedas. The Advaita school upholds a philosophical position known as monism, which is the be¬
lief that a single Ultimate Reality lies behind all things. Advaita proponents believe that reality is nondual (advaita)—that is, that ev¬
erything in the world is actually the formless, unqualified Brahman, despite the appearance of difference and diversity. To support
this claim, the Advaitins provide a convincing explanation for the world one perceives to have many separate and diverse things.
Advaitans account for this apparent diversity by using the concept of adhyasa (superimposition), in which a false, mistaken un¬
derstanding is projected upon a real object—in the classical Advaita example, seeing a rope in the twilight and mistaking it for a
snake. For the Advaitins, the “snake” is not completely unreal, since it depends on the rope for its existence—one cannot see the
snake unless the rope is there. At the same time, the “snake” is clearly not real since one does not persist in this error, and once
the illusion of the snake has been dispelled, one can no longer see it.
In the same way, the Advaitins believe that our idea of the phenomenal everyday world is projected upon the one thing in the uni¬
verse that is truly real—Brahman. Like the snake, the world is unreal as it is perceived but real insofar as it depends on Brahman.
For the Advaitins, the roots of adhyasa are epistemological, that is, related to how human beings come to know things, but the re¬
sults of adhyasa are both epistemological and ontological (related to how things actually are). On one hand, adhyasa obscures the
Ultimate Reality and prevents one from accurately perceiving it, and on the other, its projective character creates our notions of
the world. For the Advaitins, the source of all this confusion is ultimately rooted in avidya, or primal ignorance, under the influence
of which one forms mistaken ideas about the world. The operation of this ignorance is said to have no beginning, but one of the
things that keeps it going is one’s karma, based on the continuing actions caused by this mistaken understanding. Another source
of this ignorance is the power of illusion (maya) wielded by God (Ishvara), which bewilders human beings. For the Advaita Vedan-
tin, God is identified as a qualified (saguna) form of Brahman—thus below the highest unqualified (nirguna) Brahman, and himself
a product of superimposition.
Since the Advaita school believes that the source of bondage to karma results from mistaken understanding, the only way to
destroy bondage is to gain the correct understanding. Although the Advaitans say that people must perform obligatory religious
actions (nitya karma) as a matter of duty, actions can never bring about the understanding that is necessary for salvation, although
they may aid the process by removing some of the karmic obstacles. To support this understanding, the Advaitins begin their
analysis with an appeal to the knowing subject as the one thing that can never be doubted, and claim that this self-consciousness
is evidence for the existence of the inner Self, or atman. Aside from this appeal to experience, they depend heavily on the author¬
ity of the sacred texts, particularly the Upanishads, to uphold their key doctrines: that Brahman is the source of all things; that the
human soul is ultimately identical to Brahman, although hampered by obstructions based on past karma; and that gaining true
knowledge is the basis of liberation.
The first and greatest Advaita thinker was the philosopher Shankaracharya; other significant figures were his two disciples,
Sureshvara and Padmapada, as well as Mandana Mishra and Vachaspati Mishra.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Vedanta, particularly Advaita Vedanta, admittedly represents the finality of Indian wisdom, as the very word suggests: Vedanta lit¬
erally meaning “the finality” (anta) of knowledge (veda). In the sense that it is the body of wisdom contained in the Upanisads, the
concluding section (anta) of the Vedas, also it is called “Vedanta.” Originally the Upanisads were themselves called Vedantas. The
Upanisadic wisdom as interpreted by the great Sankara is known as Advaita Vedanta, meaning non- dualistic Vedanta. Sankara
expounded the hidden wisdom of the Upanisads (upanisad means “hidden wisdom”) in the 8th century AD.
Nataraja. The word of the Guru
The Advaita Vedanta as formulated and presented in the writings of Sankara was itself a revaluation of the Upanishadic and Bud¬
dhist wisdom which formed its background. Sankara subjected the values held before and in his time to a critical and methodical
scrutiny. His approach could even be said to be that of a positivist, since objective rational norms entered into it, and because he
did not try to explain away anything. That was over a thousand years ago but, making due allowance for the conditions of his day,
Sankara may be said to have approached the subject in a fully scientific spirit, insofar as such an approach could apply to a sub¬
ject in which much a priori reasoning has to be given its legitimate place. More than a millennium after Sankara, from almost the
same part of India, there appears another Guru, the Guru Narayana, who, as it were, is a representative of the same direct and
vertical line of philosophical re-valuators - a recognizable revaluators-line which can be said also to connect Sankara in his turn
with the most ancient phase of human history.
Ramakrishna tradition
Vivekananda. Jnana Yoga
Materialism prevails in Europe to-day. You may pray all the world over for the salvation of these sceptics, but they do not yield,
they want reason. The salvation of Europe depends on a rationalistic religion, and Advaita—the non-duality, the Oneness, the idea
of the impersonal God—is the only religion that can keep any hold on intellectual people. It comes whenever religion seems to
disappear, and irreligion seems to prevail, and that is why it is gaining ground in Europe and America.
... In modern times the Advaitins have all ranged themselves under Sankaracharya; and he and his disciples have been the great
preachers of Advaita, both in Southern and in Northern India. The influence of Sankaracharya did not penetrate much into our
country of Bengal, or into Cashmere and the Punjab; but in Southern India the Smartas are all followers of Sankaracharya, and
with Benares as the centre, his influence is simply immense even in many parts of Northern India.
Main sources
Prasthana-traya
Sankara: Works
For beginners
Hiriyanna. Outlines of Indian philosophy
Of the numerous hand-books written to explain the Advaita system, we may mention here the Naiskarmya-siddhi of Suresvara,
who was at first probably a MTmamsaka, and the Samktepa-sarTraka by his pupil, Sarvajnatman. Another work of particular value,
especially in regard to the Maya doctrine, is the Ista-siddhi of Vimuktatman (A.D. 1050). Later still are the Nyaya-makaranda of
Anandabodha (A.D. 1050) and the Pahca-dasT of Vidyaranya, a popular treatise. The Siddhanta-lesa-samgraha of Appaya DTksita
describes the divergences of view ... which arose within the doctrine as a result of its wide expansion in the centuries following
Samkara. The Vedantaparibhasa of Dharmaraja Adhvarlndra gives a technical and systematic exposition of the doctrine, espe¬
cially on its logical and epistemologkal side; and the Vedanta-sara of Sadananda (A.D. 1550) is an easy introduction to Advaita
philosophy.
Advaita-Vedanta and Sankhya-Yoga
General
Hiriyanna. Outlines of Indian philosophy
The Advaita resembles the Sankhya-Yoga in regard to its conception of the psychic apparatus: and it also believes like the other
in the theory of representative knowledge. The only difference that maybe noticed is that while, according to the Sankhya-Yoga,
the ten senses are traced to aham-kara, here they are supposed to be derived from the elements much as in the Nyaya-Vaiseska.
Ramakrishna
Vivekananda. The science and philosophy of religion
In the Vedas and Upanishads we find records of some of the very earliest religious ideas of the Hindus, ideas that long antedated
the time of Kapila, ancient as this great sage is. He did not propound the Samkhya philosophy as a new theory of his own. His
task was to throw the light of his genius on the vast mass of religious theories that were existing in his time and bring out a rational
and coherent system. He succeeded in giving India a psychology that is accepted to the present day by all the diverse and seem¬
ingly opposing philosophical systems to be found among the Hindus. His masterly analysis and his comprehensive statement of
the processes of the human mind have not yet been surpassed by any later philosopher and he undoubtedly laid the foundation
for the Advaita philosophy, which accepted his conclusions as far as they went and then pushed them a step further, thus reaching
a final unity beyond the duality that was the last word of the Samkhyas.
See also:
in Antahkarana: Hiriyanna. Outlines of Indian philosophy
in Sakshin and antahkarana: Hiriyanna. Outlines of Indian philosophy
Related words
Advaita
Sankara
Vedanta
Visishta-Advaita
Sanskrit
3T^<T cftTRT
Advaita Vedanta - sr^tct %^TTT
Agama
Variant spellings
agama
agama
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Agama — ... scripture; what has come down from tradition; canonical literature; source; beginning; “that which has come down”
1. Divinely revealed scripture which has been handed down from teacher to pupil through the ages. A scripture in which creation,
destruction, worship of deities, repetition of mantras, and accomplishment, means of attaining the sixfold desires, forms of medita¬
tion, and four kinds of yoga are described is considered by the wise as Agama.
2. They are divided into three main branches according to the deity that is worshipped therein. Pancaratra and Vaikhanasa
Agamas are the Vaisnava scriptures which extol Visnu. The Saiva Agamas extol Siva. And the Sakta Agamas extol the Goddess
(Devi). Sakta tantras are enumerated as sixty-four and grouped into two kinds: daksina and vama or right and left hand. Vaisna¬
va tantras are subdivided into Vaikhanasa and Pancaratra. Those revealed by Sage Vikhanas to his disciples Bhrgu, Marici, Ati,
etc., are Vaikhanasa tantras. Pancaratra Agamas are threefold: divya or directly revealed by Lord Narayana; Munibhasita or those
handed over to the sages such as Bharadvajasamhita, Paramesvarasamhita, etc., and Aptamanujaprokta, or those written by men
whose word is trustworthy. Saiva Agamas are fourfold: Kapala, Kalamukha, Pasupata, and Saiva. Traditionally, twenty-eight Saiva
Agamas are recognized as forming the revealed canon (though hundreds of these scriptures are spoken of): Kamika, Yogaja,
Cintya, Karana, Ajita, DTpta, Suksma, Sahasra, Amsumad, Suprabheda, Vijaya, Nissvasa, Svayambhuva, Anala, Vira, Raurava,
Makuta, Vimala, Candrajnana, Mukhabimba, ProgTta, LaITta, Siddha, Santana, Sarvokta, Paramesvara, Kirana, and Vatula.
3. An Agama deals with four topics: temple construction, making idols, etc.; philosophical doctrines; meditative practices; and
methods of worship (kriya, jnana, yoga, and carya). These are divided into three divisions: tantra which teaches rituals; mantra
which teaches the yoga stage of worship; and upadesa which expounds the existence and nature of the three eternal entities—in¬
dividual souls, bonds, and God (pasu, pasa, and pati).
4. Traditionally, twenty-eight Agamas are recognized as forming the revealed canon, though hundreds of these scriptures are spo¬
ken of.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
agama —
coming near, approaching;
origin;
reading, studying; acquisition of knowledge, science;
a traditional doctrine or precept, collection of such doctrines, sacred work, Brahmana;
anything handed down and fixed by tradition (as the reading of a text or a record, title-deed, &c.);
a grammatical augment, a meaningless syllable or letter inserted in any part of the radical word;
a Tantra or work inculcating the mystical worship of Siva and Sakti.
Dictionary - Runes
Agama: (Skr.) One of a number of Indian treatises composed since the 1st cent. A.D. which are outside the Vedic tradition, but
are regarded authoritative by the followers of Vishnuism, Shivaism, and Shaktism. Amid mythology, epic and ritualistic matter they
contain much that is philosophical. K.F.L.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Agama. In its most general meaning, this refers to any authoritative text. In a philosophical context, this word designates one of
the pramanas, the means by which human beings can gain true and accurate knowledge. As a pramana, the agama denotes
testimony from a reliable source, particularly from scriptures such as the Veda. Within specific sectarian communities, such as the
devotees (bhakta) of the gods Shiva (Shaivas) and Vishnu (Vaishnavas), the word also commonly designates the particular texts
deemed most authoritative by that community
Wikipedia
Agama is a term for scriptures in Buddhism, Jainism, and Sanatana Dharma:
Hindu Agamas
Agama (Buddhism)
Agama (Jainism)
Agama (Hinduism)
The corresponding adjective is Agamic.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Wisdoms frame of reference
Agama: A synonym of any ancient scripture, particularly the Vedas. There are non-Vedic agamas also, like Saivagama, Vaisnav-
agama, Jainagama etc.
Descriptions
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
agama. In the tantric tradition ... agama most commonly means “authoritative scripture.” Different systems of tantric tradition may
designate different texts as agamas. In South India, for instance, there is a tradition called Agamanta SHAIVISM that relies upon
28 agamas. In this tradition, the VEDAS are referred to as NIGAMA. Agamas tend to be fairly late texts (compared to the Vedas);
the earliest agama could hardly have been written before the sixth century C.E. Though many of the agamas of the diverse tantric
traditions are philosophical, others focus on Shaivite temple ritual, including the layout of temples, the installation of icons, and the
ritual forms to be used. In this sense, they are foundational texts for temple Hinduism.
In a more limited sense, an agama is a tantric text that takes the form of a teaching by SHIVA to PARVATI or another goddess.
(In this context, a Nigama is a text taught by the goddess to Shiva.) Finally, agama is a linguistic term used in PANINI, The great
Sanskrit grammarian, for an augment added to a base to form a complete word.
Wikipedia
The Agamas are sectarian and monotheistic texts dedicated to worship of Vishnu, Shiva and Devi. For example, the Shaivite Ag¬
amas are the primary religious text in Virasaivism. The Tantras are Agama texts devoted to worship of Devi.
Agamas are non-Vedic texts attributed to Dravidian sources as against the ‘Aryan’ Vedic literature. The origins of these Agamas
are traceable to the days of the Indus Valley around 3000 BCE. Most of the early ‘Self Realization’ concepts and Yogic texts are
also Agama in origin from which Tantra has branched off.
Almost all idol worship (Puja) and Temple rituals follow the Agama Vidhis (rules). The Puranas are also influenced largely by the
Agama devotional traditions.
The Vedas on the other hand, are entirely about Nature Worship (Varuna- water, Agni- Fire, Vayu- wind), fire rituals (homas), ani¬
mal sacrifices and do not promote idol worship at all.
In this sense, almost the entire Hindu system of today can be said to be Agama in origin and not Vedic as is commonly believed.
Vedic fire rituals are now only of minor importance in a Hindu persons life as compared to the Agama Temple rituals and the Ag¬
ama Siddhanta philosophies.
Early Jain and Buddhist literature are also called Agamas because they owe their origins to the same non- vedic sources.
Strictly speaking, Indian religious and philosophical literature can be divided into two main streams, Agama and Vedic. The first
has its roots in the early civilizations of the Indus Valley period (spread all over the sub- continent - not just Harappa and Mohen-
jadaro) and the second has its roots in the post Aryan period starting from about 2000-1500 BCE.
The early Agama traditions also migrated abroad from South/east India and influenced life in Indonesia where the ‘Hindu Agama’
religion in Java has a huge following even today.
The Agamas, in spite of being the fundamental philosophical and traditional base of present day Hinduism, they have, unfortunate¬
ly, not received the exposure and publicity that the Vedas have enjoyed.
Place in Hinduism
In Hinduism, the Agamas are an enormous collection of Sanskrit scriptures which are revered. The Agamas are the primary
source and authority for yoga methods and instruction. The Shaiva Agamas revere the Ultimate Reality as Lord Shiva (Shaivism).
The Vaishnava- Agamas (Pancharatra and Vaikhanasas Samhitas) adore the Ultimate Reality as Vishnu (Vaishnavism). The
Shakta- Agamas (Tantras) venerate the Ultimate Reality as Shakti the consort of Shiva and Divine Mother of the universe (Shak-
tism). Each set of texts expands on the central theological and philosophical teachings of that denomination.
The two main schools in the Vaishnava Agama are Pancharatra and Vaikanasa Agama. The Saiva Agama has led to the Saiva
Siddhanta philosophy in South India and to the Pratyabhijna system of Kashmir Saivism. Smartas recognize the Agamas, but
don’t necessarily adhere to them, relying mainly on the smriti texts. In the Malay languages the word Agama literally means reli¬
gion. The Agamas are also sometimes known as Tantras.
Agamas deal with the philosophy and spiritual knowledge behind the worship of the deity, the yoga and mental discipline required
for this worship, and the specifics of worship offered to the deity. Each Agama consists of four parts. The first part includes the
philosophical and spiritual knowledge. The second part covers the yoga and the mental discipline. The third part specifies rules
for the construction of temples and for sculpting and carving the figures of deities for worship in the temples. The fourth part of the
Agamas includes rules pertaining to the observances of religious rites, rituals, and festivals.
Elaborate rules are laid out in the Agamas for Silpa (the art of sculpture) describing the quality requirements of the places where
temples are to be built, the kind of images to be installed, the materials from which they are to be made, their dimensions, propor¬
tions, air circulation, lighting in the temple complex etc. The Manasara and Silpasara are some of the works dealing with these
rules. The rituals followed in worship services each day at the temple also follow rules laid out in the Agamas.
Agama (Buddhism)
In Buddhism, an agama (Sanskrit and Pali for “sacred work”[1] or “scripture”[2]) is a collection of Early Buddhist scriptures, of
which there are five, which together comprise the various recensions of the Sutra Pitika of the Sanskritic early schools. The var¬
ious schools had different recensions of each agama, and the five agamas parallel the first five collections (nikayas) of the Sutta
Pitika of the Theravadin school’s Pali Canon. Agamas of various schools, primarily the Sarvastivada, are preserved in their entire¬
ty in Chinese translation, and portions also survive in Sanskrit and in Tibetan translation.
Jain Agamas
Agamas are canonical texts of Jainism based on Mahavira’s teachings. Mahavira’s preaching were orally compiled by his disciples
into various Sutras (texts) which were collectively called Jain canonical or Agamic literature. Traditionally these sutras were orally
passed on from teachers (acaryas or gurus) to the disciples for several centuries. The scholars date the composition of Jain ag¬
amas at around 6th to 3rd century BCE.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
agama — from the verb root gam = “to go” + the preposition a = “toward”
Related words
Pramana
Sanskrit
Agama — 3ihih
agama -
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Agni — ... fire; Vedic god
1. Fire is of five kinds: the fire of time (kala-agni); the fire of hunger (ksudha-agni); the cold fire (sita-agni); the fire of anger (ko-
pa-agni)\ and the fire of knowledge (jnana-agni). These five fires reside respectively in the feet, navel, stomach, eye, and heart.
2. In the Hindu srauta ritual, there are three types of fire: the householder’s fire (garha-patya), the fire to be offered into (aha-
vanlya), and the southern fire (daksina). In order to perform srauta rites, one must “establish” these three fires. In the Vedas, Agni
appears in three phases: in heaven as the sun, in midair as lightning, and on earth as ordinary fire. In the Vedas, Agni was one of
the chief deities with more hymns addressed to him than any other god.
3. According to some, Agni is the Divine Will and/or the sacred spark of divinity within an individual, and/or fire per se, the priest
god, and the great effulgence of God, and/or Ganesa/Subramanyam. He is considered the mediator between human beings and
the gods, as well as their protector and witness to their actions.
4. See tejas.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
agni -
fire, sacrificial fire (of three kinds, Garhapatya, Ahavanlya, and Dakshina;
the number three SGryas;
the god of fire;
the fire of the stomach, digestive faculty, gastric fluid;
bile;
gold
Wikipedia
Agni is a Hindu deity.
Agni has three forms: fire, lightning and the sun.
Agni is one of the most important of the Vedic gods. He is the god of fire and the acceptor of sacrifices. The sacrifices made to
Agni go to the deities because Agni is a messenger from and to the other gods. He is ever-young, because the fire is re-lit every
day, yet he is also immortal.
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Agni, the god of fire, is one of the most central divinities in the early Vedic tradition. There are more hymns to Agni in the RIG
VEDA, the earliest SANSKRIT text, than to any other divinity. Agni is sometimes said to be the son of earth and sky. He is also
sometimes said to be the offspring of BRAHMA. He is sometimes called the son of ADITI and the RISHI Kashyapa. Finally, he is
also sometimes called the son of the rishi Angiras.
Agni’s most important role is in the Vedic ritual, where he is the messenger between humanity and the gods. He is called upon
always to take the gods to the ritual place so that they can hear the pleas and praises of the chanters. In Vedic poetry he is called
a domestic priest, a poet, and a sage, as though to identify him directly with the RISHIS. There is a sense of his presence in every
home as the hearth fire, and there are a closeness and intimacy expressed in the Vedic poetry with him that are lacking with many
of the other Vedic divinities. He is seen to extend protection to humans in many ways and to grant wealth and length of life.
Iconographically, in later times Agni is seen as red or black in color, riding a ram. He is guardian of the southeastern direction
among the eight guardians of the directions. Fire is considered one of the five elements (PANCHA BHUTAs).
Descriptions
General
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Agni (“fire,” cognate with Latin ignis) Hindu deity present in every fire. Agni is also one of the eight dikpalas, or Guardians of the
Directions, with responsibility for the southeast quarter. As fire, Agni is also one of the five elements in classical Hindu cosmology.
Agni is important in the samhitas (hymns) of the Rg Veda and in the Brahmanas, a later strand of Vedic literature emphasizing
sacrificial rites. The Rg Veda opens with a hymn to Agni and describes him as “the household priest, the god and officiant of the
sacrifice, [and], . .the giver of blessings.” Agni remained important in the Brahmanas since, as the sacrificial fire, he was essen¬
tial to all ritual. Agni’s importance in these texts stems from his presence in all three levels of the Vedic universe—on the earth as
fire, in the middle atmospheric realm (antariksha) as lightning, and in the sky as the sun. This ability to move between these levels
made Agni the intermediary between the gods and human beings. From above, Agni served as the messenger of the gods, while
as the sacrificial fire on earth, Agni not only consumed the offerings but conveyed them in the smoke to the gods above. Because
of his role in bringing about the sacrifice, another epithet for Agni is the “mouth of the gods.”
Unlike many of the other Vedic deities, Agni has retained a certain prominence even in the present day. Although Vedic sacrifices
are uncommon, sacrificial motifs have been incorporated into many contemporary rites. Ceremonies often have a part in which of¬
ferings (often of clarified butter) are ladled into a sacrificial fire. Fire plays an important role in many rituals, particularly that of arati,
in which lamps are waved before the image of a divinity as an offering of light. Agni also serves as the divine witness to the single
action widely believed to seal a marriage. This is agnipradakshinam, in which the bride and groom make seven revolutions around
a lamp or fire. Even on the most prosaic level, fire is still essential to daily life since most Indians continue to cook over an open
flame—whether coal, wood, dung, or bottled gas. This everyday utility, combined with his abiding ritual presence, have assured
Agni a continuing presence in Hindu life.
Wikipedia
Agni, the Vedic god of fire who presides over the earth, has made the transition into the Hindu pantheon of gods, without losing his
importance. With Vayu and Surya, who presided over the air and sky, he is one of the supreme gods in the Rig Veda. The link be¬
tween heaven and earth, he is associated with Vedic sacrifice, taking offerings to the other world in the fire. His vehicle is the ram.
His cult survived the change of the ancient fire worship into modern Hinduism. The sacred fire- drill (agnimathana) for procuring
the temple-fire by friction - symbolic of Agni’s daily miraculous birth - is still used.
In the Vedas
Agni is the first word of the first hymn of the Rigveda:-
f & HTIofd 44 44 ^dVplH I ftcftT II
agnim Tie purohitam / yajnasya devam rtvijam / hotaram ratnadhatamam
Agni I laud, the high priest, god, minister of sacrifice, The invoker, lavishest of wealth.
He is the supreme director of religious ceremonies and duties, and figures as messenger between mortals and gods. Vedic rituals
concerned with Agni include the Agnicayana, that is, the piling of the fire altar, the Agnihotra, viz., invocation of Agni.
The Rigveda often says that Agni arises from water or dwells in the waters.
Other Rigvedic names, epitheta or aspects of Agni include Matarishvan, Bharata and the Apris.
Agni is a deva, second only to Indra in the power and importance attributed to him in Vedic mythology, with 218 out of 1,028
hymns of the Rigveda dedicated to him. He is Indra’s twin, and therefore a son of Dyaus Pita and Prthivi. He is married to Svaha,
“oblation” personified.
He is one of the Guardians of the directions, representing the southeast.
He is said in the Rigveda to have two parents (the two parts of the firedrill used to start the fire), and ten servant maids (the fingers
of the man who is lighting the fire.)
Depictions
In Hindu art, Agni is depicted with two or seven hands, two heads and three legs. He has seven fiery tongues with which he licks
sacrificial butter. He rides a ram or in a chariot harnessed by fiery horses. His attributes are an axe, torch, prayer beads and a
flaming spear.
Agni is represented as red and two-faced, suggesting both his destructive and beneficent qualities, and with black eyes and hair,
three legs and seven arms. He rides a ram, or a chariot pulled by goats or, more rarely, parrots. Seven rays of light emanate from
his body. One of his names is Saptajihva, “having seven tongues”.
Legends
Agni is the eldest son of Brahma. In Visnu Purana , Agni (Abhimani) the fire god is said to have sprung from the mouth of the Virat
purusha, the Cosmic Man. His wife is Svaha. Abhimani had three sons of surpassing brilliancy: Pavaka, Pavamana, and Suchi,
the personifications of the three fires that produced our earth and humanity (VP 1:10). All these three names indicate purity. Abhi-
manin, his three sons, and their 45 sons constitute the mystic 49 fires of the Puranas and theosophy.(cf Agni Purana.)
As the eldest son of Brahma, Abhimani represents the cosmic Logos, the first force produced in the universe at its evolution, the
fire of cosmic creative desire.
His three sons, according to the Vayu Purana, stand for three different aspects of Agni (fire): Pavaka is the electric fire, Pavamana
the fire produced by friction, and Suchi the solar fire. Interpreted on the cosmic and human planes, these three fires are “Spirit,
Soul, and Body, the three great Root groups, with their four additional divisions” (SD 2:247). They are said to have been cursed
by the sage Vasishtha to be born again and again (cf BP 4:24,4; SD 2:247- 8). “Every fire has a distinct function and meaning in
the worlds of the physical and the spiritual. It has, moreover, in its essential nature a corresponding relation to one of the human
psychic faculties, besides its well determined chemical and physical potencies when coming in contact with the terrestrially differ¬
entiated matter” (SD 1:521).
Agni is also an important entity in ayurveda.lt is considered to be the one which is responsible for the sustenance of life. Agni
helps in the various physiological functions of the body.
See also:
Evolution of prakriti (Sankhya)
Diagram: Mahabhutas
Etymology
General
Wikipedia
The word agni is Sanskrit for “fire” (noun), cognate with Latin ignis (the root of English ignite), Russian oroHb (ogon), Polish
“ogien,” Lithuanian - ugnis - all with the meaning ‘fire’ -, with the reconstructed Proto-lndo- European root being h’egni-
Related words
Tejas
Mahabhuta
Sanskrit ^
Agni — 3TfPT
agni -
Aham
Definitions
General
Aham, the personal pronoun T.
Dictionary - Grimes
Aham — ... “ I “l-awareness”; the notion of the ego; the individual soul; self- consciousness; T- consciousness; the pure inner
Self.
1. There are said to be two “ I’s “: the lower self or egotistical individual and the higher self or the pure (suddha) Self.
2. According to Kashmir Saivism, it points to the free and Self-illuminating consciousness that resides in the Heart.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
aham -
nom. sg., T
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Aham: I; often used by Narayana Guru as a synonym of atma.
Descriptions
General
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
... it is necessary to understand what Hinduism teaches regarding the Aham, the “I”, a word that is etymologically related to the
Latin “ego” and the English “I”. It has been noted by Hindu philosophers that “Aham” consists of the letters “a” which is the first,
and “ha” which is the last letter of the Sanskrit Alphabet, and the word has therefore the implication of signifying the whole of Exis¬
tence. The final “m” is a suffix. The same idea is found in the Apocalypse: “I am the Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the end¬
ing, saith the Lord, which is, and which was, and which is to come, the Almighty.” According to the great Hindu teachers “Aham”
means literally “I am He”, and therefore represents the spiritual effort to abolish the duality of Man and God, or of the soul and the
rest of the Universe, including, in the first place, of course, humanity.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad says that when the first being came into manifestation it was like a person, though it was neither
male or female. When the person recognized its beingness, it said “I am,” or in the original Sanskrit, aham, “I am That.” The Upa¬
nishad says when a person introduces himself he first says “I am,” and then adds his name. So first we say aham, “I am,” and then
we say whatever we want to add to it.
... a certain movement of consciousness as “I...I...I....” “I am listening to you,”—that’s one T. “I appreciate what you say,”—that’s
another aham. “I don’t like it.” Another aham. “Oh, I like it very much.” Another aham. “It depresses me.” Aham. “”lt hurts me.”
Aham. The T and ‘me’ which come one after another are as endless as waves on the ocean, while at the same time each forma¬
tion of the T perishes in the very next moment, just as waves expend themselves on the shore.
Ramakrishna tradition
Ramakrishna. Sayings of Sri Ramakrishna
HOW TO CONQUER THE EGO
119. If one ponders over this word T, trying to track it down, one sees that it is only a word which denotes egotism. But it is ex¬
tremely difficult to shake it off. So one must say, “ You wicked T, if you will not go by any means, remain as the servant of God.
The ego that feels itself to be the servant of God is called the ‘ripe I’.
120. Sankaracharya had a disciple who had been serving him for a long time but was not still given
any instruction by him. Once, while seated alone, Sankara heard the footsteps of someone coming
behind. So he called out, “Who is there?” The disciple answered, “It is I.” The Acharya thereupon said,
“If this T is so dear to you, then either expand it to infinity (i.e., know the universe as yourself), or
renounce it altogether.”
121. If you find that you cannot drive off this feeling of I, then let it remain as the servant I. There
is not much to fear from the ego which is centered in the thought, “I am the servant of God; I am His
devotee.” Sweets cause dyspepsia, but not sugar candy which is an exception The ‘servant I’, the T of
a devotee, the T of a child— each of these is like a line drawn with a stick on the surface of water. T
does not last long.
122. Just as sugar candy has no unwholesome effect like other sweets, so also the ‘ripe’ ego which
considers itself to be the servant or worshipper of God causes none of those evil consequences
characteristic of the unripe ego. On the other hand it leads to God, and signifies that one has
progressed in Bhakti Yoga or the path of devotion.
123. What is the nature of the feelings and impulses of one who has the attitude of the servant I? If
his conviction is true and sincere, then there remains only the forms, the appearance, of his former
feelings and impulses. Even if the ego of the servant or the ego of the devotee remains, one who has
realised God can hurt none. The whole sting of individuality vanishes from him. The sword becomes
gold by a touch of the philosopher’s stone. It retains its former shape, but can no longer hurt any one.
124. If you feel proud, let it be in the thought that you are the servant of God, the son of God. Great
men have the nature of children. They are always children before Him; so they are free from pride. All
their strength is of God, and not their own. It belongs to Him and comes from Him.
126. As long as one says, “ I know” or “I do not know “, one looks upon oneself as a person. My
Divine Mother says : It is only when I have effaced the whole of this Aham (l-ness) in you, that the
Undifferentiated Absolute (My impersonal aspect) can be realised in Samadhi.” Till then there is the T
in me and before me.
127. After a process of severe struggle with one’s lower nature and the assiduous practice of
spiritual discipline leading to Self-knowledge, one attains the state of Samadhi. Then the ego with all
its train vanishes. But it is very difficult to attain Samadhi; the ego is very persistent. That is why we
are born again and again in this world.
128. So long as one is not blessed with the vision Divine, so long as the touch of the philosopher s
stone has not transmuted the base metal in one into gold, there will be the illusive feeling: ‘I am the
doer.’ And until this illusion ceases, there will persist the idea that gives the sense of distinction
between ‘I have done this good work’, and ‘I have done that bad work’. Maya means this sense of
distinction, and it is because of it that the world continues. One reaches Him if one takes refuge in
Vidya Maya —that aspect of Divine Power having the preponderance of Sattva—which leads one by
the right path. He alone crosses the ocean of Maya, who comes face to face with God—realises Him.
A man is truly free, even here in this embodied state, if he knows that God is the true agent and he by
himself is powerless to do anything.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Osborne. The collected works of Ramana Maharshi
The three bodies, are non-self and are unreal. The Self, that is the Aham or T is quite different from them. It is due to ignorance
that the sense of Self or the T notion is foisted on that which is not Self, and this indeed is bondage. Since from ignorance arises
bondage, from Knowledge ensues liberation. To know this from the Guru is sravana.
The process of manana, which is subtle enquiry or deep contemplation, consists in rejecting the three bodies consistingof the
five sheaths (physical, vital, mental, intellectual, and blissful), as not T and discovering through subtle enquiry of ‘Who am I?’ that
which is different from all three and exists single and universal in the Heart as Aham or T, just as a stalk of grass is delicately
drawn out from its sheath. This T is denoted by the word tvam (in the scriptural dictum ‘Tattvam- asi’, That thou art).
Aham and koshas
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
Mr. C.: What is will? I mean - where does it fit in, in the five kosas?
M.: The ‘l-thought’ arises first and then all other thoughts. They comprise the mind. The mind is the object and the T is the subject.
Can there be will without the T? It is comprised in the T. The ‘l-thought’ is the vijnanamaya kosa (intellectual sheath). Will is in¬
cluded in it.
... On a former occasion ... asked: Who am I? How is it to be found?
M.: Ask yourself the question. The body (annamaya kosa) and its functions are not T. Going deeper, the mind (manomaya kosa)
and its functions are not T. The next step takes on to the question. “Wherefrom do these thoughts arise?” The thoughts are spon¬
taneous, superficial or analytical. They operate in intellect. Then, who is aware of them? The existence of thoughts, their clear
conceptions and their operations become evident to the individual. The analysis leads to the conclusion that the individuality of the
person is operative as the perceiver of the existence of thoughts and of their sequence. This individuality is the ego, or as people
say T. Vijnanamaya kosa (intellect) is only the sheath of ‘I’ and not the T itself. Enquiring further the questions arise, “Who is this
T? Wherefrom does it come?” T was not aware in sleep. Simultaneously with its rise sleep changes to dream or wakefulness. But
I am not concerned with dream just now. Who am I now, in the wakeful state? If I originated from sleep, then the T was covered
up with ignorance. Such an ignorant T cannot be what the scriptures say or the wise ones affirm. T am beyond even ‘Sleep’; T
must be now and here and what I was all along in sleep and dreams also, without the qualities of such states. T must therefore be
the unqualified substratum underlying these three states (anandamaya kosa transcended). T is, in brief, beyond the five sheaths.
Next, the residuum left over after discarding all that is not-self is the Self, Sat-Chit-Ananda.
Vijnanamaya kosha and aham
See also:
in Turiya: Nagamma. Letters from Sri Ramanasramam
in Vijnanamaya kosha: Dayananda. Talks on Vivekachudamani
Related words
Ahankara
Idam
Vijnanamaya kosha
Sanskrit
Aham — 3T^T
aham - sr^
Aham Brahma Asmi
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Aham-brahmasmi — ... “I am the Absolute (Brahman)”
1. A Great Saying (mahavakya) conveying the wisdom of the Upanisads which occurs in the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad of the Yajur
Veda
2. See mahavakya.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Meditations on the self
Aham brahma asmi - Literally ‘I am the Absolute.” The Upanishadic dictum describing the mystical experience of a person’s com¬
plete identity with the Absolute. It is also read as “I am of the Absolute.”
Descriptions
General
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Aham Brahmasmi (“I am Brahman.”). In the Hindu philosophical tradition, this is one of the four “great utterances” (mahavakyas)
expressing an ultimate truth. The truth expressed in this utterance is the idea that atman (the individual Self) and Brahman (Ulti¬
mate Reality) are one and the same—identical; this truth is at the heart of the speculative texts called the Upanishads. The four
mahavakyas, aside from their philosophical importance as capsulizing fundamental truths, were also appropriated by the four
divisions of the Dashanami Sanyasi ascetics as identifying symbols. Each division had a different mahavakya, just as each had a
different Veda, a different primary sacred center, and a different paradigmatic ascetic quality. Aham Brahmasmi is the mahavakya
associated with the Bhuriwara division of the Dashanami Sanyasis.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Meditations on the self
If we can somehow manage to return to the source, where knowledge, abstracted and held out as a notion in our mind, is iden¬
tified as nondifferentiated from the knower and the known, and by the same token know that the knower and the known are the
same, we achieve what is called unitive understanding (advaita darsana). The person endowed with this realization can easily
understand the Upanishadic dictum “This Knowledge is verily the Absolute,” (prajnanam brahma). As a corollary he also sees
that “this Self is none other than the Absolute,” (ayam atma brahma). Having known this for sure, he can declare this truth to any
seeker: “That thou art,” (tat tvam asi). The great dictum “I am the Absolute,” (aham brahma asmi) is given in the Upanishads to
describe the complete and final identity of the seer with the Supreme Self.
Regaining identity with the Absolute is like going back home from a long and tedious pilgrimage through several lives, and sitting
on one’s own seat in calm repose, with the recognition that there is nothing else to gain in the three worlds other than the Self.
Regaining one’s true Self is described in the Upanishads as achieving nativity (svarajya), and getting established in the Self is
described as becoming the “Imperial Master” of the domain of the Absolute.
See: Mahavakyas as used for instruction
Related words
Yajur Veda
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
Maha-Vakya
Sanskrit
Aham-brahmasmi — STepT
aham brahmasmi -
Ahankara
Variant spellings
ahankara
ahankara
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Ahankara — ... T’-ness; egoism; the concept of individuality; literally = “the T’-maker”
1. In the evolutionary process ahankara is said to evolve from the intellect (buddhi) and give evolution to the senses (indriya) and
the subtle essence of the elements (tanmatra) in turn. Its function is self-assertion. It is an aspect of the inner organ (antahkarana)
and it has the three aspects of vaikarika or sattva, taijasa or rajas, and bhutadi or tamas.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
ahamkara -
conception of one’s individuality, self-consciousness;
the making of self, thinking of self, egotism;
pride, haughtiness;
(in Sankhya phil.) the third of the eight producers or sources of creation, viz. the conceit or conception of individuality, individual¬
ization
Wikipedia
Ahamkara is a Sanskrit term that is related to the ego and egoism - that is, the identification or attachment of one’s ego.
Ahamkara is one of the four parts of the antahkarana (inner organ) described in Hindu philosophy. The other three parts are Bud¬
dhi, Chitta and Manas.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Ahamkara - relating what is known to oneself in terms of value experience.
The l-sense each individual has.
Nitya. Principles and practice of Patanjalis Yoga
ahamkara: ego, l-consciousness, affectivity, affective core of antahkarana, the inner organ (psychic dynamism).
Descriptions
General
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
Besides containing the “heart centre” of Yoga, traditionally said to be in the middle of the body in the region of the heart, the upper
part of the trunk contains the “Hridaya” or “Heart” of the tradition of the Jnanis of Hinduism. This is said to be situated in the right
side of the chest. We find it also in the Bible: “A wise man’s heart is at his right hand, but a fool’s heart is at his left.” The “heart” at
the right side is the symbolic, spiritual, centre, the heart on the left the physical pump of the literalists, “fools”. ... The Heart of the
Jnanis forms the Centre of Jnana or “Gnosis”, that is, Self-realization, bringing the unity of Consciousness and Being.
... It is interesting that Hindu tradition teaches that the “I” arises in the “heart centre” of Yoga and that the Self or Divine I lives in
the Heart on the right side of the chest.
... Intimately associated with “desire” is “egoism”. The Yogic tradition teaches that in the Anahata or “heart centre” arises Ahamka¬
ra (pronounced Ahankara), meaning “l-factor” or “ego-activity”. Ahamkara is basically the spiritual effort to establish the duality of
Man and God, and of Man and Man, or Woman — according to the usual interpretation. The word indicates “the dynamic activity
of the ego”.
Wikipedia
To have an understanding of this term means that we have a powerful tool for understanding the nature and behaviour of our¬
selves and of others. The Vedic philosophy taught that when one’s mind was in a state of ahamkara, one was in a state of sub¬
jective illusion, where the mind had bound up the concept of one’s self with a created thing. The created thing is usually a phe¬
nomenon which can be thought of as external to the self. It could be a tangible, concrete (material) thing - e.g., a motor car - or
an intangible thing - e.g., such as a concept or idea (as in, for example, the concept of the fight for peace). The ego is involved in
constructing the illusion.
...the mind has created a state of illusion, but it seems very real to the person in that state, and objectivity and reality are obscured.
Consider how an otherwise apparently nice, normal family man in the military - Rudolf Hoss, could also happily undertake the role
as the Commandant of the Auschwitz death camp in Nazi Germany. Hoss’ autobiography, written whilst he was awaiting execu¬
tion after the trial for war crimes, indicates that was unable to see that he had been doing anything other than just doing his job to
the best of his ability.
Ahankara and spiritual development
General
Wikipedia
Ahamkara is the instrument of Aham (the Spirit), the principle of individuation, acting as an independent conscious entity within the
impure reality - yet, it does not have consciousness of its own.
It is a receptacle of Cit sakti, its consciousness being a small spark from Cit, the universal consciousness.
It manifests itself by assuming authorship of all the actions of buddhi, manas, the senses and organs of action.
It is believed to exist in the sphere of duality, in a state of identification with the physical body, its needs and desires.
It is related to Vak tattva, one of The 36 tattvas in Vedic and Hindu religious philosophy.
In ahamkara, a state of rajas guna (agitation) predominates. This is because it identifies only with a small part of the creation (the
body) and rejects everything else as “not me”; it becomes subject to a series of afflictions such as: pride, egoism, competitiveness,
hate and jealousy.
Though ahamkara is generally a state of illusion, once in that state, Vak tattva (one of The 36 tattvas) can appear. When it does,
then, for the first time, individual will, determination, a sense of morality and ethics come into play - which is the first step on the
path to spiritual development/enlightenment. Without a sufficiently harmonious and powerful ahamkara (personality), it is thought
to be impossible to exert the level of effort necessary to accede to a higher spiritual level. The position of ahamkara and buddhi
are sometimes presented in reversed order because, as the principle of “l-ness”, ahamkara is allowed control over the manas
(sensorial mind) and buddhi (superior intellect, intuition). Yet, buddhi is a superior tattva, and ahamkara is thus only able to be in
a superior position to buddhi from a functional point of view. From an absolute point of view, ahamkara is created by buddhi and
thus subordinate to it.
Ahankara and states of consciousness
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Maharshi's Gospel
M: The ego in its purity is experienced in the intervals between two states [of consciousness] or between two thoughts. The ego is
like the worm which leaves one hold only after it catches another. Its true nature is known when it is out of contact with objects or
thoughts. You should realise this interval as the abiding, unchangeable Reality, your true Being, through the conviction gained by
the study of the three states, jagrat, svapna and sushupti.
Sivananda tradition
Chinmayananda. Sankara. Vivekachudamani
104. Know that it is the ego which, identifying with the body, becomes the doer or the experiencer, and in union with the Gunas
such as Sattwa, this ego assumes the three different states (of waking, dreaming and deep-sleep.)
Commentary by Chinmayananda:
This sense of individuality, when it identifies with the three Gunas-Sattwa, Rajas and Tamas, which are the three modes of the
mind, comes to express itself in the three states of Consciousness— waking, dream and deep-sleep. Thus, roughly we may say,
the ego conditioned by Sattwa is the ‘waker’: conditioned by Rajas is the ‘dreamer’; and conditioned by Tamas is the ‘deepsleep-
er’. The same ego, according to the condition of the mind, experiences itself as the waker, the dreamer and the deep-sleeper, and
in all these states, naturally, it claims to be the ‘doer’ and the ‘experiencer’.
Ahankara and mahat
General
Dasgupta. A history of Indian philosophy
... This mahat-tattva being once produced, further modifications begin to take place in three lines ... representing the sattva pre¬
ponderance, rajas preponderance and tama preponderance. This state when the mahat is disturbed by the three parallel ten¬
dencies of a preponderance of tamas, rajas and sattva’s called ahamkara, and the above three tendencies are respectiviy called
tamasika ahamkara or bhutadi, rajasika ortaijasa ahamkara, and vaikarika ahamkara. The rajasika ahamkara cannot make a new
preponderance by itself; it only helps (sahakari) the transformations of the sattva preponderance and the tamas preponderance.
... Further development with the help of rajas on the line of sattva development... is called sattvika or vaikarika ahamkara. This
ahamkara represents the development in buddhi to produce a consciousness-stuff as I or rather “mine,”... From this again come
the five cognitive senses of vision, touch, smell, taste, and hearing, the five cognitive senses of speech, handling, foot-movement,
the ejective sense and the generative sense; the pranas (bio-motor force) which help both conation and cognition are but aspects
of buddhi-movement as life. ... Each buddhi with its own group of akamkara (ego) and sense-evolutes forms a microcosm sepa¬
rate from similar other buddhis. ... as knowledge is subject to sense-influence and the ego, it is different for each individual, but so
far as a general mind (karana buddhi) apart from sense knowledge is concerned, there is a community of all buddhis in the bud-
dhitattva. Even there however each buddhi is separated from other buddhis by its own peculiarly associated ignorance (avidya).
... The other tendency, namely that of tamas, has to be helped by the liberated rajas of ahamkara, in order to make itself pre¬
ponderant, and this state in which the tamas succeeds in overcoming the sattva side which was so preponderant in the buddhi,
is called bhutadi. From this bhGtadi with the help of rajas are generated the tanmatras, the immediately preceding causes of the
gross elements.
See: Antahkarana, manas, citta, buddhi, ahankara
See: Jiva and ahankara
See: Manas, indriyas, chitta, vritti, buddhi, ahankara, mahat
See: Vaishvanara and ahankara
See also:
in Amrta: Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
in Hiranyagarbha: Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
in Manas and avidya: Sankara. Vivekachudamani Tr. Chatterji
in Prakriti: Krishnananda. Commentary on the Bhagavadgita
in Vairagya: Hiriyanna. Outlines of Indian philosophy
Evolution of prakriti (Sankhya)
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
ahankara —from the verb root kr = “action” + aham = “ I “
Wikipedia
The term “ahamkara” comes from an approximately 3,000 year-old Vedic philosophy, where Aham refers to the concept of the Self
or “I” and kara refers to the concept of “any created thing” or “to do”.
Related words
Aham
Antahkarana
Buddhi
Chitta
Jiva
Mamakara
Manas
Sanskrit
Aharikara — 31££-|{
ahaiikara -
Ahimsa
Variant spellings
ahimsa
ahimsa
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Ahimsa — ... noninjury; nonviolence
1. One of the great vows (mahavrata) of the Jainas. It is the law of compassion in body, mind, and spirit. Negatively it means re¬
fraining from causing any injury, and positively it stands for the practice of love toward all living beings.
2. It is the first and most important of the abstentions (yama) of the Yoga System. It is the cardinal virtue upon which all others
depend. It is the law of compassion in body, mind, and spirit.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
ahimsa -
not injuring anything, harmlessness (one of the cardinal virtues of most Hindu sects, but particularly of the Buddhists and Jains;
also personified as the wife of Dharma;
security, safeness
Wikipedia
Ahimsa is a term meaning to do no harm (literally: the avoidance of violence - himsa). It is an important tenet of the religions that
originated in ancient India (Hinduism, Buddhism and especially Jainism).
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Ahimsa: The vow of non-hurting or compassion as understood in the Buddhist or Jaina religious systems. With Gandhi it meant
nonviolence in political struggles.
Nitya. Love and Blessings
ahimsa: The habit of non-hurting. A natural outcome of seeing oneself as one with the whole and thus loving everything as one
loves oneself.
Descriptions
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Ahimsa means “non-killing.” This is a concept that seems to emerge in late Vedic times (c. 800 B.C.E.) and is primarily associated
with the Jain ... and Buddhist traditions at that time.
It gradually is taken into the Brahminical tradition and becomes central to it up to the present day. The notion of ahimsa is applied
toward animal life primarily but in Jain tradition is recognized in the case of plants also.
Ahimsa understands that all animals (and for the Jains certain plants) have souls and that the killing of any animal (or certain
plants) whether for eating or not accumulates karmic ... demerit to the one who does it. The Jains were the most radical in this
regard, and their monks were enjoined to sweep their path clear with whisks to prevent stepping on insects and sometimes wore
(and wear) masks over their mouths to prevent the breathing in and killing of small invisible beings and insects. Jains would never
eat meat and would not countenance the eating of meat or the killing of any animal for any reason in their tradition.
... The notion of ahimsa is the primary motive for Indian vegetarianism and orthodox BRAHMINS too avoid all meat, animal prod¬
ucts, and eggs (which are seen to be living embryos). Because of ahimsa there are certain orthodox Hindu ascetics who will not
wear leather shoes or sandals, but will wear only wooden shoes. Mohandas Karamchand GANDHI expanded the notion of ahimsa
to the interpersonal realm and developed it into a philosophy of personal action.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Ahimsa (“refraining from harm”). Ahimsa refers to the conscious commitment to refrain from harming other living beings, either
directly or indirectly. The emphasis on ahimsa originated with the Jains, for whom all actions carry karmic consequences, but who
also believe that the karmic consequences generated by intentional evil acts are far more severe than those from unintentional
ones. Jain and Buddhist commitment to ahimsa brought it further into Indian society, and it has been an important feature of Hin¬
du practice for well over two thousand years. In the Yoga Sutras, Patanjali mentions ahimsa as one of the restraints (yama) and
thus recommends it as one of the basic foundations for religious life. This commitment to ahimsa is believed to be one of the major
forces responsible for the decline of animal sacrifice, which was one of the most important types of religious practice as described
in the Vedas, the oldest Hindu scriptures. Far more recently, in the twentieth century, ahimsa was one of the guiding principles of
Mohandas Gandhi during the struggle for Indian independence. Although Gandhi did not rule out the use of violence in principle,
his commitment to ahimsa reflected his judgment that means and ends are karmically linked, and that the means one employs will
determine both the nature and tone of one’s ends.
Wikipedia
Ahimsa is a rule of conduct that bars the killing or injuring of living beings. It is closely connected with the notion that all kinds
of violence entail negative karmic consequences. The extent to which the principle of non-violence can or should be applied to
different life forms is controversial between various authorities, movements and currents within the three religions and has been
a matter of debate for thousands of years. Though the origins of the concept of ahimsa are unknown, the earliest references to
ahimsa are found in the texts of historical Vedic religion, dated to 8th century BCE. Here, ahimsa initially relates to “non-injury”
without a moral connotation, but later to non- violence to animals and then, to all beings. Though ritual sacrifice of animals and
meat- eating are condoned in the earliest Vedic texts, other texts present counter- arguments against these activities. In the 19th
and 20th centuries, prominent figures of Indian spirituality such as Swami Vivekananda, Ramana Maharishi, Swami Sivananda
and A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada emphasized the importance of ahimsa. Mahatma Gandhi applied ahimsa to politics,
by his non-violent satyagrahas.
Ahimsa in Jainism emphasizes vegetarianism and bans hunting and ritual sacrifice. Jains go out of their way so as not to hurt
even small insects and other minuscule animals and make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as pos¬
sible. In accordance to this policy, eating of some foods, whose cultivation harms small insects and worms as well as agriculture
itself, is to be abstained from. Violence in self-defense, criminal law, and war are accepted by Hindus and Jains. Though ahimsa is
not used as a technical term in Buddhism unlike the other two religions, it condemns ritual sacrifice and violence, and moral codes
emphasize the importance of not taking life.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
ahimsa - from the prefix a = “not” + the verb root hints = “to injure”.
Sanskrit _
Ahimsa — 3TffW
ahimsa - 3i$Ru
Aitareya Upanishad
Title
Aitareya Upanishad
Author(s)
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Aitareya is a matronymic or patronymic deriving from the SANSKRIT root itara. It means “son of itara” (either masculine or femi¬
nine), who would be his mother or father. This is an ancient RIG VEDIC sage who also goes by the name of Mahidasa. Credited to
him are the Aitareya Brahmana, the Aitareya Aranyaka, and the Aitareya Upanishad, all texts attached to the RIG VEDA.
Wikipedia
The rishi of the Aitereya Aranyaka and the Aitereya Brahmana is Aitereya Mahidasa. In Chandogya Upanishad, Aitereya Mahida¬
sa is said to have lived 116 years (Chhandogya 3.16.7).
Descriptions
General
Wikipedia
The Aitareya Upanishad is one of the older, “primary” Upanishads commented upon by Adi Shankara. It is a Mukhya Upanishad,
associated with the Rigveda. It figures as number 8 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads.
The Aitareya Upanishad is a short prose text, divided into three chapters, containing 33 verses. It comprises the fourth, fifth and
sixth chapters of the second book of the older vedic text, Aitareya Aranyaka.
Diagram: Summary of Vedic literature
Synopsis
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
The Aitareya Upanishad begins with cosmological verses showing how the ultimate being, the ATMAN or Self, created the worlds,
the elements, and human beings. Important here is the connection between each of the elements of the divine PURUSHA, which
is the template Person, and the elements of nature aspects of the cosmos and the human being. From the original Person fire, air,
Sun, the quarters of space, the Moon, death, and water emerge. All of these elements again go into making up the human being.
Once this takes place the Self enters into the human being that has emerged as the result of his creation. This then makes clear
that the self of a human being is the Ultimate Self, which is the source of everything.
Wikipedia
In the first chapter of the text, Atman, the inner self, is portrayed as a divine creator. In the second chapter, the three births of the
Atman are described. The third chapter deals with the qualities of the self or Brahman. It contains one of the most famous expres¬
sions of the Vedanta, “Prajnanam Brahma”, which is one of the Mahavakyas.
Related words
Mahavakya: Prajnanam Brahma
Rig Veda
Upanishad
Publications
Translations
In: Deussen, P., Bedekar, V. M. & Palsule, G. B. 1997, Sixty Upanishads Of The Veda (2 Vols.), Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
(Pvt. Ltd).
In: Hume, R. E. & Haas, G. C. O. 1995, The thirteen principal Upanishads : translated from the Sanskrit, with an outline of the phi¬
losophy of the Upanishads and an annotated bibliography, Oxford University Press, Delhi; Oxford.
Prasad, N. 2000, Aitareya Upanishad : with the original text in Sanskrit and roman transliteration, D.K. Printworld, New Delhi.
In: Radhakrishnan, S. 1953, The principal Upanishads, Harper, New York.
In: Swami Nikhilananda, The Upanishads: Katha, Isa, Kena, Mundaka, Svetasvatara, Prasha, Mandukya, Aitareya, Brihadaranya-
ka, Taittiriya, and Chhandogya, 4 vols., New York: Harper & Row, 1964
Ajati Vada
Variant spellings
ajati-vada
ajata-vada
ajati-vada
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Ajati-vada — ... the theory of nonorigination
1. The Advaita Vedanta theory, especially associated with Gaudapada, which denies any causal change. That which is nonexis¬
tent in the beginning and nonexistent at the end is also nonexistent in the middle and therefore completely nonexistent.
Wikipedia
The Sanskrit term Ajativada can be translated as “non- creation”. Ajativada is one of several alternately-held creation theories in
Advaita Vedanta philosophy. According to Advaita Vedanta, the world of appearances is considered an illusion, and not to “ex¬
ist”. The idea that the illusory world was not created is called Ajativada, or non-creation. The concept implies that searching for
a source of the origin of the world in a creator is futile. Advaitins translate the concept of Ajativada with the phrase: “nothing ever
happened” or: “Not even the appearance of creation exists”. That is to say, not even the illusion of the world “exists”.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Integrated Science of the Absolute
ajata-vada : The theory that no creation takes place. Only what exists gets transformed into new forms.
Descriptions
General
Wikipedia
According to the eighth century Advaitin Gaudapada, and his Mandukya Karikas.a treatment or commentary on the Mandukya
Upanishad, Ajativada means that causality is internally incoherent and entails the belief that Atman is eternally unborn. Adi Shan-
kara wrote the following in verse 426 of his work Viveka Chudamani (The Crest- Jewel of Discrimination’),Mohini M Chaterjee,
The Theosophical Publishing House, Adyar, 1932.On account of constant absorption in Brahman, freed from the sense of reality
of external objects, only seemingly enjoying them when offered by others, like a sleepy baby, perceiving the world as that seen
in a dream and recognising it only now and then, such a man is indeed rare. He is the enjoyer of the fruits of untold merit and is
truly held blessed and revered on earth.. This is about as close as one get to a description of the state of a Mukta, totally absorbed
permanently..or realised one. A Mukta has realised Ajativada....
The twentieth century sage Ramana Maharshi was a particularly articulate adherent to the concept of ajativada. On Sri Ramana’s
view, ajativada or non- creation is a part of the highest form of consciousness that can be attained. Sri Ramana described three
consecutive steps, each of which corresponds to a different understanding of reality:
That somebody or some god created the world
That the world arises simultaneously with our perception of it
Finally, ajativada, that the world never happened at all. (‘Be as you are’.The Teachings of Sri Ramana Maharshi..David Godman..
Arakana.London and New York...1986).
Sadhu Om: A chronicler and devotee of Ramana wrote; At times Sri Ramana Maharshi used to reveal some information which
was not given by the scriptures and Puranas such as: how, in the Bhagavad Gita, Sri Krishna began His teachings with the doc¬
trines of Ajata and Advaita, but then condescendingly came down to various stages of Dwaita, and how He carefully used words
which, though suited to Arjuna’s limited grasping power, also gives room for well-ripened aspirants to discover, even now, the
motive behind those words.
This is supported by the great Sage Nisargadatta Maharaj, who indicated the following;
1. That individuals begin with first believing they are making things happen;
2. Then realising things are in fact happening to them;
3. Then finally that nothing is happening at all (‘I am That’, Acorn Press. N.C. 1999).
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Iyer. At the Feet of Bhagavan
Q. What is the Ajata-vada?
A. It is the doctrine of no birth. Nothing is or ever was born, nor does it decay or die.
Q. Then what do we see happening before us?
A. The seer and the seen are mere phantoms as in a dream vision.
Q. But dream is bound up with sleep, while here we are awake.
A. What is sleep except being unaware of your own being? Mental activity in such unawareness gives rise to confusing thoughts;
thus comes the mistake of seeing what is not and missing what is. Similarly in the waking state; we miss the Self and see the
world, which really is not. That which is not cannot be born or die; it seems to emerge from the Real Being, and also merge in It
again. To become aware of this Real Being is the ultimate goal of the man who is ignorant of It but yearns to realise It.
Ajata-vada fulfils this purpose, and it is based on the fundamentals laid down in the Upanishads and elaborated in the Karika of
the Mandukyopanishad — which has been elaborately explained by Sri Sankaracharya. ...
Restatements of this Ajata vada, or expositions of this doctrine, either partial or full may be found in ‘Yoga Vasishta’.
Sanskrit
Ajati-vada — 3i ^ii facile;
ajati-vada -
Ajnana
Variant spellings
ajnana
ajnana
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Ajnana — ... ignorance; nescience
1. One of the five types of delusion (mithyatva) according to Jainism.
2. According to Advaita Vedanta, it is defined as beginningless (anadi), positive (bhava-rGpa), removable by right knowledge
(jnananivartya), having its locus either in the Absolute (Brahman) or in the individual (jlva), having the two powers of concealment
(avarana) and projection (viksepa), and indeterminable (anirvacariiya). (See avidya and maya.)
3. Primal limitation (mala), according to Saivism.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
ajnana -
non-cognizance;
ignorance, (in philosophy) spiritual ignorance (ora power which, consisting of the three Gunas sattva, rajas, and tamas, and pre¬
venting the soul from realizing its identity with Brahma, causes self to appear a distinct personality, and matter to appear a reality);
Prakriti, Maya, Illusion;
ignorant, unwise.
Dasgupta. A history of Indian philosophy
Ajnana the cause of all illusions is defined as that which is beginningless, yet positive and removable by knowledge.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Ajnana: Ignorance. The mistaken notion concerning oneself and the world that what appears manifestly is real, completely oblivi¬
ous of the one all-underlying Reality called brahman or atman.
Sankara tradition
Sankara. Atmabodha, tr. Nikhilananda
Ajnana is the ignorance which makes the Absolute appear as the relative or the One as the many.
Sadananda. Vedantasara, tr. Nikhilananda
Ajnana: Ignorance; the technical term for any conscious activity which does not pertain to the knowledge of the unity of the Soul
with Brahman.
Descriptions
Sankara tradition
Sadananda. Vedantasara, tr. Nikhilananda
The words avidya and ajnana are usually rendered ‘ignorance’ but it is necessary to state that in this connection the word ‘igno¬
rance’ has a meaning slightly different from the usual one. It does not mean negation of knowledge but is a positive concept...
Perhaps ‘error’ is a better rendering. The negative particle a in these words does not imply the negation of the term it qualifies but
its antithesis. Thus akarma=evil act, akhyati=ill-fame, etc.
See: Jnana and ajnana
See: Jnana, ajnana, vijnana
See: Maya, avidya, ajnana
See also:
Avarana and vikshepa
in Avarana: Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
ajnana— from the verb root jna = “to know” + a = “not”
Related words
Avarana
Avidya
Cit
Maya
Vikshepa
Sanskrit
Ajriana — 3T^TFT
ajnana - sr^orra -
Akasa
Variant spellings
akasa
akasha
akash
aakaasha
akasa
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Akasa — ... “not visible”; ether; space; inner sky; sky; room; any type of space: physical, mental, intellectual, spiritual
1. Space, the subtlest of the five physical elements, which gives rise to the other four elements and which has the attribute of
all-pervasiveness. It denotes any type of space: physical, mental, intellectual, and/ or spiritual. It is also known as the inner mind
or consciousness of an individual. (See pancabhuta and mahabhuta.)
2. In Buddhism, one of the three asamskrta-dharmas. It is held to be a permanent, omnipresent, immaterial substance. Its es¬
sence is free from obstruction. (See asamskrta-dharma.)
3. In Jainism, it is an all-pervasive, subtle, existent substance which provides the ground for all other substances to exist. It is di¬
vided into space occupied by things (lokakasa) and/or the space beyond, the void (alokakasa).
4. According to Nyaya-Vaisesika, it is what is inferred as the eternal and all-pervasive substratum in which sound inheres.
5. According to Sankhya and Advaita Vedanta, it is one of the five elements which are produced and destroyed.
6. According to Sautrantika, it is the same as the ultimate atom, since both are no more than notions.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
akasa -
(Ved.) or (later) a free or open space, vacuity;
the ether, sky or atmosphere;
(in philos.) the subtle and ethereal fluid (supposed to fill and pervade the universe and to be the peculiar vehicle of life and of
sound) Vedantas;
Brahma (as identical with ether)
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Akasha (“space”). One of the five elements in traditional Indian cosmology, the others being earth, fire, water, and wind. In some
philosophical schools, each of the senses; akasha is associated with hearing since it is believed to convey sound from place to
place.
Wikipedia
Akasha is the Sanskrit word meaning “aether” in both its elemental and mythological senses.
Akasha is the omnipresent incontrovertible transcendent eternal source of all energy, the realm of promise, potential, paths to be
walked and the primal source that creates and nourishes the other four elements, Fire, Earth, Air and Water. Akasha is all direc¬
tions, East, South, West and North and all seasons, Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter. It is not limited to three dimensions,
Length, Width, and Depth or Height, but is made up of infinite ones comprising all possibilities of movement, both material and
spiritual.
Ramakrishna tradition
Vivekananda. The science and philosophy of religion
Aliasa is the primal element out of which every gross thing proceeds.
Descriptions
General
Wikipedia
Hinduism
In Hinduism Akasha means the basis and essence of all things in the material world; the smallest material element created from
the astral world. It is one of the Panchamahabhuta, or “five great elements”; its main characteristic is Shabda (sound). In Hindi and
Gujarati, the meaning of Akasha is sky.
The Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools of Hindu philosophy state that Akasha or ether is the fifth physical substance, which is the
substratum of the quality of sound. It is the One, Eternal, and All Pervading physical substance, which is imperceptible.
According to the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy, Akasha is one of the five Mahabhutas (grand physical elements) having
the specific property of sound.
Jainism
Akasha is space in the Jain conception of the cosmos. It falls into the Ajiva category, divided into two parts: Loakasa (the part
occupied by the material world) and Aloakasa (the space beyond it which is absolutely void and empty). In Loakasa the universe
forms only a part. Akasha is that which gives space and makes room for the existence of all extended substances.
Buddhism
In Buddhist phenomenology Akasha is divided into Skandha, Desa, and Pradesa.
The Vaibhashika, an early school of Buddhist philosophy, hold Akasha’s existence to be real.
Carvakism
Adherents of the heterodox Carvaka or Lokayata philosophy of India hold that this world is made of four elements only. They ex¬
clude the fifth element, Akasha, because its existence cannot be perceived.
Theosophy
The Western religious philosophy called Theosophy has popularized the word Akasha as an adjective, through the use of the term
“Akashic records” or “Akashic library”, referring to an ethereal compendium of all human knowledge.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Meditations on the self
... It’s hard to say whether sky and space are the same or not. In Sanskrit both are called akasa. The definition of akasa is avaka-
sa datur akasa — that which enables a thing to claim its existential being is akasa. In other words akasa is that which enables a
thing to exist by its non-beingness. Earth, water, fire and air have their positive existence in the beingness of akasa’s nonexis¬
tence. Yet this nonexistent akasa is all-inclusive and has a beingness which should be qualified as primordial. Its existence is to
be taken in the sense in which the Indian Logician calls non-being a substance.
... Sound is treated as a quality of akasa (ether). Next in the series is touch, a quality of vayu (air), form is of agni (fire), taste is of
jala (water) and smell is of prithvi (earth).
Nitya. Saundaryalahari of Sankaracarya
... akasa ... has no equivalent term in English. Aspects of a number of terms such as sky, ether, space, time and ground are to be
put together to form an integrated concept which stands for akasa. The definiton of akasa in the Sankhya Darsana is avakasadatr,
that which makes it possible for an object to exist. The space occupied by an object is, as it were, donated by akasa. We may say
the entirety of space is one aspect of akasa. In the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad Yajnavalkya teaches Gargi that the warp and the
woof of the universe is akasa, and that the structure of the Absolute is in akasa. It is to be known as both spiritual and non-spiri¬
tual. Its quality is vibration. As vibration indicates direction of movement, kinetic frequencies, and dynamics, the sequential quality
of akasa produces time. Thus akasa as a manifested reality becomes the time-space continuum. It is also to be conceived of as a
unified field in which everything functions according to the assigned nature of each element. In fact, akasa becomes the first step
towards physical creation. As sound, which in its graded operation controls the entire field of the noetics and semiotics of the world
of conception and expression, akasa becomes the ground of mental, psychic and spiritual manifestations, which find their natural
home in the world of elements.
Ramakrishna tradition
Vivekananda. Jnana Yoga
The forces permeate all matter; they all dissolve into ether, from which they again come out; and the first to come out is akasa.
Whether you translate it as ether, or as anything else, this is the idea, that this akasa is the primal form of matter. This akasa
vibrates under the action of prana, and when the next srishti is coming up, as the vibration becomes quicker, the akasa is lashed
into all those wave forms which we call the suns, moons, and systems.
Akasa and sound
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Integrated Science of the Absolute
Sound (sabda) is the specific characteristic element of the fifth bhuta which is akasa. In an extended sense electromagnetic phe¬
nomena including light waves are another characteristic of akasa. Wave propagation is a factor common to light and sound, and in
an extrapolated sense, although the Vaiseshikas did not actually say so, light may be said to be the very essence ofakasa, be¬
cause it is independent of all ponderable media.
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
The psychic expansion of space, or the extensiveness of the psyche if you prefer, is called akasa. Everything has its place in
akasa. Its intrinsic quality, or dharma, is sound. For this reason, sound can affect everything. It can influence, alter, build up or
destroy. According to Jaimini’s school of Purva Mimamsa, this world is constituted of sound. They believe that since this world is
created out of sound, you can change or modify it to your liking by using sound. They have made many sound structures called
mantras. Mantras have a dynamic called mantra chaitanya, the psychodynamics of mantra, which can bring about such changes.
See also:
Evolution of prakriti (Sankhya)
in Mahabhutas: Dasgupta. A history of Indian philosophy
in Mahabhutas: Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Diagram: Mahabhutas
Etymology
General
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
akasa - from prep, a, ‘to’ + kasa, ‘appearance’ < the root kas, to shine, to appear
Related words
Bhuta
Mahabhuta
Prana
Sabda
Vayu
Sanskrit
Akasa — 3TlcPTVf
akasa -
Akhanda
Variant spellings
akhanda
akhanda
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Akhanda — ... indivisible; whole; undivided
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
akhanda -
not fragmentary, entire, whole;
time
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Akhanda: The indivisible infinite; particularly referring to atman or brahman.
Descriptions
General
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
Akhanda brahmacharya is continence without a break.
Sankara tradition
Sadananda. Vedantasara, tr. Ballantyne
In the Vedanta-Sara Brahma is described as Akhanda, without parts. It is argued that if Brahma were made up of parts, it would
follow that It was non-eternal. Sankara says, “ We admit Brahman to be without parts just because Scripture reveals it.”
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
akhanda —from a = “not” + khanda = “break”
Sanskrit
Akhanda — 3T^T
akhanda -
Aksara
Variant spellings
aksara
akshara
aksara
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Aksara — ... imperishable; indestructible; immutable; undying; syllable
1. A name for the Reality (Brahman) in its transcendent immutable aspect. Sometimes used as a name for maya or prakrti.
2. A name for the word om.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
aksara -
imperishable;
unalterable;
a sword;
Siva;
Vishnu;
a syllable;
the syllable om;
a letter;
a vowel;
a sound;
a word;
Name of Brahma;
final beatitude religious austerity, sacrifice.
Descriptions
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Bhagavad Gita
All these relativistic systems referred to in the above verses are only of a different phenomenological content within the negative
principle of the Absolute, which is known as manifestation. The unmanifested aspect remains beyond all time-space concepts and
the norms of relative understanding. This unmanifested aspect is called the aksara. This chapter is especially dedicated to the
unmanifested and imperishable aspect of the Absolute.
Nitya. Brhadaranyaka Upanisad
The Science of Absolute (brahmavidya) is established on the imperishable sound aksara. In the Platonic and Christian concepts
aksara is equivalent to the Logos or the Word. Such is the elaborate study to which we come in this mantra.
Prasad. Chandogya Upanisad
Any letter of the Sanskrit alphabet is called an aksara; so is any pronounced syllable. One of these syllables, AUM, in rituals, is to
be articulated along with udgTtha and other incantations; whereas in wisdom it is to be understood as the imperishable (aksara)
syllable representing imperishable Reality. Vedists claim that the letters and words of the Vedas are eternal (aksara).
Nitya. Psychodynamics of Pranava
In our school days, we are taught how to make linear signs to be pronounced as sounds. Consonants are invented and conjoined
with nature vowels and all the alphabet characters together are called aksaras. There is only one aksara, one imperishable, but
unfortunately the identification of aksara, with a written or spoken letter of the alphabet makes most Indians confuse the imperish¬
able AUM with a stylized scribbling of the Sanskrit or Tamil language, and the profound is changed into the profane. The imper¬
ishable AUM spoken of here is not what is written or drawn with a few sinuous curves. Yet the idolatrous mind of man has made
the spoken AUM a cliche and the written AUM an idol. First of all, one has to break oneself away from such puerile forms of giving
veneration to AUM. For this reason we see mystics everywhere swearing against idolatry. Whether in science or mysticism, one
has to clear one’s ground before settling down to the serious business of penetrating to the depth of the real that is shrouded in
the enchanting veil of the phenomenal.
Sivananda tradition
Krishnananda. Commentary on the Bhagavadgita
The two realities are the empirical reality and eternal reality, the visible reality and the invisible reality, the external reality and the
universal reality, the material reality and the spiritual reality. These are the contrasts that are made here by the words ‘kshara’ and
‘akshara’: All that is perishable is kshara, and all that is imperishable is akshara.
...If we are to take the verses that come in the Fifteenth Chapter literally, it is possible to consider purusha as akshara and prakriti
as kshara, and Purushottama transcends both kshara and akshara.
Ramakrishna tradition
Ramakrishna. The gospel of Sri Ramakrishna
“I was twenty-two or twenty-three when the Divine Mother one day asked me in the Kali temple, ‘Do you want to be Akshara?’ I
didn’t know what the word meant. I asked Haladhari about it. He said, ‘Kshara means jiva, living being; Akshara means Paramat-
man, the Supreme Soul.’
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
aksara - from a = “not” + ksi = “to destroy, perish”.
Sanskrit
Aksara — 3THT7
aksara -
Amrta
Variant spellings
amrta
amrita
amrta
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Amrta — ... “not death”; immortal; immortality; divine nectar; juice of divine delight; ambrosia; mystical bliss
1. The nectar of immortality. The divine nectar which flows down from the thousand-petaled lotus (sahasrara cakra) when one has
raised the kundalinT.
2. The elixir of immortality which was the first item to emerge from the ocean of milk when the gods and demons churned it.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
amrta -
not dead;
immortal;
imperishable;
beautiful, beloved;
an immortal,
a god;
N. of Siva;
of Vishnu;
the plant Phaseolus Trilobus Ait.;
collective body of immortals;
world of immortality, heaven, eternity;
immortality;
final emancipation;
the nectar (conferring immortality, produced at the churning of the ocean), ambrosia (or the voice compared to it);
nectar-like food;
antidote against poison;
N. of a medicament;
the residue of a sacrifice;
unsolicited alms;
milk L. clarified butter;
anything sweet, a sweetmeat;
a pear;
food, property;
gold;
quicksilver;
poison;
a ray of light;
of a sacred place (in the north);
the number, ‘four’.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Amrta (“imperishable”). In Hindu mythology this is the nectar of immortality, which is churned from the Ocean of Milk through the
combined efforts of the gods and the demons. The word is also used metaphorically to describe anything believed to be especial¬
ly purifying and powerful, such as charanamrta (“foot nectar”). Charanamrta are the liquids (milk, water, etc.) given to devotees
(bhakta) to drink, which are often the fluids in which their guru’s feet or the image of a deity have been bathed.
Wikipedia
Amrita or Amrit is a Sanskrit word that literally means “that which is immortal”, and is often referred to in texts as nectar. Corre¬
sponding to ambrosia, it has different significances in different Dharmic Traditions.
Descriptions
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Amrita is the term used in the VEDAS for SOMA, comparable to the ambrosia of the Greeks. It is considered a nectar of immortali¬
ty of sorts and is taken during certain rites to achieve transcendent insight. Perhaps because the Moon is sometimes called Soma,
amrita in the Vedic context is said to be found on the Moon; it feeds the Fathers in the dark half of the Moon’s phases and the
gods in the bright half.
The story goes that the gods and antigods (asuras) once joined together to churn the MILK OCEAN to make amrita. A huge
mountain was used as a churning stick and the divine snake ADISHESHA (or Vasuki) was used as the rope around the stick.
Many things emerged from the Milk Ocean at that time including the special divine wish-giving cow who appears in later mytholo¬
gy. Finally, the amrita emerged held in a cup by the divine physician Dhanvantari. The gods then plotted with VISHNU so that the
antigods (asuras) would not be able to drink the nectar. Vishnu took on his form of the dazzling maiden, MOHINI, and as he dis¬
tracted the asuras, the gods drank all the amrita themselves.
One story says that when the gods drank the amrita it spilled at four sites: HARDVAR, Nasik, Ujjain, and ALLAHABAD (Prayag).
In esoteric HATHA YOGA it is thought that amrita can be accumulated in the skull above the posterior of the nasal passage. This
amrita is understood to be transformed semen that can create bodily immortality. By severing the frenulum, or skin attachment
under the bottom of the tongue, a yogi can force his tongue backward into what is called the Khechara MUDRA, in order to drink
the amrita.
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
The Guru appears in the form of Dhanvantari, the God bringing the Bowl with the Amrita. ... In recent Hinduism, Dhanvantari is
considered to be the Patron of “the Ayurvedic system of medicine”. In a deeper sense, he is, like Aesculapius, much more than
that, for the “medicine” is that which heals the ills of life which are caused by the Ahankara. The “medicine” is really the Elixir of
Immortality. It is the Antidote to the Poison. In a certain sense it is as it were the product of a synthesis of all the medicines in the
world, which are all meant to produce a particular effect. But the Elixir, the Amrita, does not aim at bringing about a “particular” or
“part” effect. It is the Great Solvent. It brings Wholeness, Harmony, Oneness. It is the Heavenly Water of the Ocean in which the
salt doll, the earthly man, will be finally dissolved. The Sanskrit word Ayuh, which is found in Ayurveda, is popularly said to mean
“a long life”. It actually means aeviternity, that is to say, eternity-within-time, or modified eternity, to use these poor expressions.
The word Ayuh is related to the Greek Aion, meaning the same. This Greek word and the related Latin word Aeon are found in
Gnostic symbology. Further more, “old age” as well as “youth” is universally connected with the Spirit. From the point of view of
the Fall “age” predominates, bringing experience through the ages. From the point of view of the Return “youth” predominates.
The Elixir, marking the end of the Return, represents Immortal Youth. In this “Age” and “Youth” become one.
... The Sura and the Amrita correspond to the Nectar and Ambrosia of Greek tradition which formed the Drink and the Food of the
Olympic Gods. They also correspond to the Wine and Bread of Genesis
... After the soul has once tasted of the Perfect Bliss of God, the Ahankaric pleasures of the world have no more power over it.
Wikipedia
Hinduism
Amrit is repeatedly referred to as the drink of the gods, which grants them immortality.
Amrit features in the Samudra manthan, where the gods, because of a curse from the sage Durvasa, begin to lose their immortali¬
ty. With the help of the asuras (demons), they churned the sea in order to find the nectar of immortality, amrit. After drinking it, the
gods regained their immortality and defeated the demons.
In yogic philosophy (see yoga, Hindu philosophy) amrita is a fluid that can flow from the pituitary gland down the throat in deep
states of meditation. It is considered quite a boon: some yogic texts say that one drop is enough to conquer death and achieve
immortality.
A more positive interpretation is found in south Indian tradition, where amrita can mean “She who provides the nectar of life to
those who thirst.”
Sikhism
Amrit (Punjabi: wkafe) is the name of the holy water used in the baptism ceremony (known as Amrit Sanskar or Amrit Chhakhna
by the Sikhs). This ceremony is observed to initiate the Sikhs into the Khalsa brotherhood. The ceremony requires the drinking
of the Amrit. This water is created by mixing a number of soluble ingredients, including sugar, and is then rolled with a khanda
(a type of knife) with the accompaniment of scriptural recitation of five sacred Banis (chants). This Amrit is also referred to God’s
name as a nectar which is obtained through Guru’s word.
Buddhism
Amrita, under its Tibetan name of dutsi, also features in Tibetan Buddhist mythology, where it is linked to the killing of the monster
Rahu by Vajrapani, whose blood dripped onto the surface of this earth, causing all kinds of medicinal plants to grow.
Dutsi also refers to a herbal medicine made during ceremonies involving many high lamas in Tibetan Buddhism, known as drub-
chens. It usually takes the form of small, dark-brown grains that are taken with water, or dissolved in very weak solutions of alco¬
hol, and is said to improve physical and spiritual well- being.
Chinese Buddhism describes Amrita as blessed water, food, or other consumable objects often produced through merits of chant¬
ing mantras.
Amrta and Soma
General
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
The Amrita is the Solar Elixir and is symbolically connected with the Ether-Sphere. It is closely related to the Soma, the Lunar Elix¬
ir, which is symbolically connected with the Moon-Sphere, the Sphere of Consciousness and the Tradition.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
amrta — from the verb root mr - “to die” + the prefix a -’’not”
Related words
Soma
Sanskrit
Amrta — 3TiJcT
amrta - sppr
Ananda
Variant spellings
ananda
ananda
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Ananda — ... bliss; delight; a type of samadhi in which the mind concentrates on the intellect
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
ananda -
happiness, joy, enjoyment, sensual pleasure;
‘pure happiness’, one of the three attributes of atman or Brahman in the Vedanta philosophy Vedantas;
(in dram.) the thing wished for, the end of the drama [e.g. the Vlth Act in the Venis.];
a kind of flute;
N. of Siva;
(often at the beginning and end of proper names)
Dictionary - Runes
Ananda: (Skr.) Joy, happiness, bliss, beatitude, associated in the thinking of many Indian philosophers with moksa (q.v.); a con¬
comitant of perfection and divine consciousness (cf. sat- citananda). K.F.L.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Ananda (“bliss”). One of the three traditional attributes of the Supreme Reality (Brahman), usually described as beingconscious¬
ness- bliss (sacchidananda). Ananda, or bliss, is heavily stressed in certain forms of tantra, an esoteric ritual tradition. In tantra,
ananda is both an aspect of mundane physical enjoyment and a way of describing the ultimate realization. In this understanding,
even ordinary pleasures are reflections of ultimate bliss. Ultimate bliss differs from ordinary pleasure both because it is permanent,
and because you lose your sense of self and are aware only of bliss.
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Ananda: Bliss. Should be understood in the context of the Good in Western philosophy as a supreme Value. Bounty, goodness
and kindness are all conceptions depending upon a notion of value. Sat, existence; Chit, substantial being in a rational sense;
and Ananda as a supreme value, are terms conjointly used to describe the Absolute in Vedanta, representing three stages in the
appraisal of the true from the point of view of human intelligence. Ananda, is thus supreme bliss or goodness and describes the
Absolute in terms of human feeling.
Descriptions
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Ananda literally means “bliss.” In Hinduism, ananda is the bliss beyond comprehension that is experienced when one is in commu¬
nion with or has realized in totality the Godhead.
Ananda is seen as an aspect of the Divine and is often mentioned together with sat (divine being) and cit (divine consciousness).
The term SAT-CHIT-ANANDA (divine being, consciousness, bliss) often appears in Vedantic contexts ... and has become a prop¬
er name for SWAMIs or holy men.
Many teachers also have “ananda” appended to their names, such as Nikhilananda, “He who has realized total divine bliss,” or
Satyananda, “He who has realized the divine bliss of the One Truth,” or Muktananda, “He who has realized the divine bliss in liber¬
ation from birth and rebirth.”
Radhakrishnan. Philosophy of Upanishads
Ananda or delight is the highest fruition, where the knower, the known and the knowledge become one. Here the philosophical
quest terminates, the suggestion being that there is nothing higher than ananda. This ananda is active enjoyment or unimpeded
exercise of capacity. It is not sinking into nothingness, but the perfection of being.* “ The discerning see by their superior knowl¬
edge the Atman which shines all bliss and immortality.” Strictly speaking, we cannot give any account of the highest reality of
ananda, Even the question whether it is abstract or concrete is illogical. Intellectual necessities require us to give some descrip¬
tion. It is truer to consider it concrete than abstract. Each higher principle is more concrete and inclusive than the lower one, and
therefore nanda, which is Brahman, is the most inclusive of all. From it all things flow. By it all things are sustained, and into it all
things are dissolved. The different parts, the mineral world, the plant life, the animal kingdom, and the human society, are not relat¬
ed to the highest in any abstract or mechanical way. They are one in and through that which is universal about them. All parts in
the universe share in the light of this universal spirit and possess specific features on account of the special functions which they
have to perform.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Integrated Science of the Absolute
Bliss orananda is an all-comprehensive value factor. Even animals have this experience in their own way. Happiness with a cap¬
ital letter can even be identified with the highest aim of all absolutist teaching. The Science of the Absolute can also be called the
Science of Happiness in this sense. The secret here is to understand the all- inclusive character of absolute Happiness.
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
... sat-cit-cmanda. Sat means existence, cit is subsistence, and ananda is the value-factor. Actual presences or value-factors
belonging to the universe are described in this chapter as aspects of the Absolute with which we can relate ourselves. ... We can
catalogue a long list of evil items, but we cannot assign the cause of these to an agency outside the pale of the Absolute. That is
why we don’t want to translate ananda as bliss. The term we use here is “value”. Items of pleasure can be arranged in terms of
qualitative or quantitative units of values of an ascending or descending order. We are counting positive values when we go from
indifference to the highest state of bliss. We descend in the value-scale when we go from the highest bliss to the zero point. If we
go any further from the zero point we will advance in the opposite direction, which should be counted as negative values. Thus,
pain and pleasure, irrespective of their accompanying modes of affectivity, come under the scale of values, positive or negative.
... I value my beingness and you value your beingness. Everything tends to become valuable in one way or another. All these val¬
ues are measured by our own happiness. This is called ananda.
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Ananda is not mere happiness. It is rather the norm that enables us to measure and discern each event as pleasurable or painful.
Or else, it is the neutral value-sense that unfolds itself as our experiences of pleasure and pain.
This value-sense in each of us is an unsharable one; the pleasure and pain we feel are also so. One’s experience of them can
only be conjectured by others from the externally visible behaviour of one who feels pain and pleasure internally. The unsharable
value-sense is part of our being and is eternally one with us. What we do externally is only a sign of what really is within.
What is the dearest of all for each of us? It is ourselves. This love for oneself is eternal whereas the apparent bodily existence is
transient. That means, it is not the bodily existence we consider the dearest, but it is the essential, eternal Reality in us, the atma
in us, that everyone loves.
To be engaged in efforts to attain something dear to us is natural and eternal with us. It shows, despite the transience of our bodily
existence, the value-sense in us, in everyone, is beginningless and endless. And this eternal value-sense in all is what we call
ananda; it is unthinkable and non- dual. Eternally perceiving this non-dual ananda alone in and through all the ups and downs of
life is where we attain realization of the non-dual ananda, the Supreme ananda, also known as paramananda. This itself is the
moksa (liberation) the Guru perceives.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
Ananda is felt after the cessation of thoughts in sleep. It is also manifest on other occasions as love, joy, etc., priya, moda and
pramoda. But they are all chitta vrittis (modes of mind).
Nagamma. Tetters from Sri Ramanasramam
A rich Reddy from Nellore who happened to be there said, “Ananda is said to be Atma. Ananda is free from sorrow. If so, when the
jiva experiences ananda, will he be free from sorrow?” Bhagavan replied, “There can be ananda (joy) only if there is duhkha (sor¬
row). It is only if a thing is known as duhkha then ananda can be known. If duhkha is not realised, how can ananda be realised?
So long as there is one who knows, these two will exist. Vastu (the thing that is) is above sukha and duhkha. Even so, that vastu
is known as sukha because Sat is above sat and asat. Jnana is above jnana and ajnana, Vidya is above vidya and avidya. The
same thing is said about several other things. So what is there to say?” said Bhagavan.
Sivananda tradition
Dayananda. Talks on Vivekachudamani
There are a lot of people who translate the word ‘ananda’ as bliss which is not correct. Bliss itself is a vrtti-visesa, whereas the
ananda is the nature of the atma and not a vrtti.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
ananda - from the verb root nand = “to rejoice”
Related words
Moksa
Priya
Saccidananda
Sanskrit
Ananda — 3iM-q
ananda - stfrt
Anandamaya kosha
Variant spellings
anandamaya kosha
anandamaya-kosa
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Anandamaya-kosa — ... the sheath of bliss
1. The innermost of the five sheaths enveloping the self. (See kosa.)
2. Truly speaking it is infinite, transcendent, and perfect and not really a sheath, according to some schools, but the very essence
of the Self.
3. It is also known as the causal body (karana-sarlra), according to Advaita Vedanta.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
anandamayakosa -
the innermost case of the body, the causal frame enshrining the soul
Wikipedia
Anandamaya kosha. Anandamaya means composed of ananda, or bliss. In the Upanishads the sheath is known also as the caus¬
al body. In deep sleep, when the mind and senses cease functioning, it still stands between the finite world and the self. Ananda¬
maya, or that which is composed of Supreme bliss, is regarded as the innermost of all. The bliss sheath normally has its fullest
play during deep sleep: while in the dreaming and wakeful states, it has only a partial manifestation. The blissful sheath (ananda¬
maya kosha) is a reflection of the Atman which is bliss absolute.
Descriptions
Ramakrishna tradition
Nirmalananda. A Commentary on the Upanishads
“A man is, above all, his will. As is his will in this life, so does he become when he departs from it. Therefore should his will be
fixed on attaining Brahman.” (Chandogya Upanishad 3:14:1b)
This is surely one of the most important statements in the upanishads. The will is the highest faculty we possess. It is higher even
than the intellect, for we often say: “I won’t think about that right now...” and we do not, because the will controls it. The only thing
higher than the will is the Self. The will approaches closer to the Self than any other aspect of our being. This is so important, be¬
cause the quality of our religion and our yoga is determined by which aspect is the basis of our belief and practice.
... The will is the anandamaya kosha, which corresponds to the ether element, whose special faculty is sound (shabda), both the
passive faculty of hearing and the active faculty of speech. Which is why the highest yoga is based on Sound-specifically, the
highest sound: Om. Om Yoga is the way to correct and develop the will. Since we are our will according to the upanishad, it must
be made alive through the continual japa and meditation of the Pranava, the Word of Life: Om. Only through Om can we gain
mastery of the will, and thereby of ourselves. We must become Om, “the Word that is God” according to the Bhagavad Gita (7:8.
“I am the sacred syllable Om.” 10:25). By becoming Om, we become God-not in the absolute sense, but in the relative sense of
knowing ourselves as an eternal part of God, identical in essence, even though not the Whole.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
The common man is aware of himself only when modifications arise in the intellect (vijnanamaya kosa); these modifications are
transient; they arise and set. Hence the vijnanamaya (intellect) is called a kosa or sheath. When pure awareness is left over it is
itself the Chit (Self) or the Supreme. To be in one’s natural state on the subsidence of thoughts is bliss; if that bliss be transient
- arising and setting - then it is only the sheath of bliss (Anandamaya kosa), not the pure Self. What is needed is to fix the atten¬
tion on the pure T after the subsidence of all thoughts and not to lose hold of it. This has to be described as an extremely subtle
thought; else it cannot be spoken of at all, since it is no other than the Real Self. Who is to speak of it, to whom and how?
Sankara tradition
Sankara. Vivekachudamani Tr. Chatterji
Anandamaya sheath is the reflection of the absolute bliss, yet not free from ignorance. Its attributes are pleasure and the like,
through it the higher affections are realised (e.g. in svarga). This sheath, whose existence depends upon virtuous action, becomes
manifest as anandamaya without effort (that is, as the necessary result of a good life) in a virtuous man enjoying the fruits of his
own merit. 209
The principal manifestation of the anandamaya sheath is in dreamless slumber. In the waking and dreaming states it becomes
partially manifested at the sight of pleasant objects. 210
Nor is this anandamaya the supreme spirit, because it is subject to conditions. It is a modification oT prakrti, an effect, and the sum
of all the consequences of good acts. 211
Sivananda tradition
Dayananda. Talks on Vivekachudamani
209. The anandamaya kosa is a mental modification born of tamas; pervaded by reflected ananda, possessing the attributes as
priya etc.; and rises with the gain of a desirable object. For those who have done good deeds, it shines at the time of experiencing
the punya. At that time everyone who has a body, rejoices well without effort, becoming that very ananda itself.
The anandamaya is described in this verse. Anandamaya is a specific vrtti, born of tamas, avidya-tamojrmbhita. All the vrttis are
born of auidya only. Being a vrtti, the anandamaya is not anandasvarGpa.
In the Taittiriyopanisad each kosa is described with the imagery of a bird. The bird has a head, body, two wings and a tail. The tail
gives stability to the body. Describing anandamaya the upanisad says, “The head of this anandamaya is priya. Moda and pramoda
are the right and left wings. And the body is ananda”. Priya-moda-pramoda are ananda-vikaras, the modifications of the vrtti which
manifests as ananda. The body of this anandamaya-paksi is of the nature of ananda. It is the body that supplies blood, energy
etc., to the head and the wings. Similarly, in the case of anandamaya here the ananda experienced as priya-moda-pramoda is lent
by the atma that is ananda. And that ananda has its culmination in Brahman - brahma puccham pratistha. So the anandamaya
has its being in Brahman alone, which is the real ananda.
Krishnananda. The Essence of the Aitareya and Taittiriya Upanishads
Now comes the question of love and happiness. How are we happy? And how is it that when there is love for a particular object,
happiness seems to manifest itself from within? This is a very interesting philosophical as well as psychological feature in us. This
is mentioned in a few words (perhaps only three or four words) towards the end of the Taittiriya Upanishad when it discusses the
nature of the innermost sheath in us, called the anandamaya kosha. The causal sheath, the most subtle and pervasive and the in¬
nermost of sheaths in us, in our personality, is called the anandamaya kosha. It is called anandamaya because it is characterised
by blissfulness or happiness. Ananda means happiness; maya means ‘filled with’. It is filled with and constituted of happiness only,
warp and woof.
... This anandamaya kosha, or the sheath of bliss, is the subtlest layer, the most initial movement of consciousness outwardly.
Then it becomes grosser as intellect, further grosser as mind, and then as the senses, prana, and the physical body, and then as
its relationship with the other physical objects.
Krishnananda. Lessons on the Upanishads
In the state of deep sleep, none of these [prana, manas and buddhi] are active. Neither the body is operative there, nor the mind,
nor the intellect, nor is there any consciousness that we are even breathing. The consciousness is withdrawn entirely from all the
sheaths - physical, vital, mental and intellectual. There is only one sheath operating in the state of sleep. That is the causal sheath
-the anandamaya kosha, as it is called in Sanskrit.
Anandamaya and causal body
Ramakrishna tradition
Nirmalananda. A Commentary on the Upanishads
“Different from the intellectual sheath is the sheath of the ego. This sheath is encased in the intellectual sheath and has the same
form.” (Taittiriya Upanishad 2:5:2a)
The completion of the body complex is the highest body, the anandamaya kosha which is the seat of will and the sense of asmi-
ta—“I exist.” The intellect may know it is seeing a tree, but the will decides whether or not to keep looking at it. In this way it fully
controls the lesser levels. It both brings them into function and stops their actions. Just as the buddhi makes us intelligent human
beings, the will-body makes us effective human beings.
The anandamaya kosha is the subtlest causal level, so subtle that it “touches” and partakes of the nature of the spirit-self. Func¬
tionally speaking, it is a mixture of subtle energy and pure consciousness-though it is not really, since “beyond all sheaths is the
Self.” (Taittiriya Upanishad 2:5:2b) Sometimes we have to speak inaccurately to get across at least a shadow of higher realities.
Diagram: The five sheaths (pancha-kosas)
Related words
Karana-sarira
Kosha
Priya
Sukha
Sanskrit
Anandamaya-kosa —
anandamaya-kosa - 3iMH^+ r RT
Ananta
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Ananta — ... “infinite”; without end; endless; name of the snake upon which Visnu rests.
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Adishesha (also Shesha or Ananta)
Adishesha, the divine thousand-headed serpent, is the couch for Lord VISHNU as he sleeps between eras on the vast ocean
of milk. When the MILK OCEAN was churned by the demons and gods to produce the nectar of immortality Adishesha was the
churning rope, according to some versions of the story. It is also said that, when time begins again in a new era, the world sits on
the head of Adishesha; whenever he stirs, earthquakes result. At the end of each cosmic era he vomits out the fire of destruction,
which incinerates the universe.
In the story of PRAHLADA and HIRANYAKASHIPU, Prahlada prays to Adishesha when forced by his father to eat poison and is
saved. Other stories associate Adishesha with cosmic poison in different ways.
Many different personages in Indian tradition have been said to be incarnations of Adishesha, most notably BALARAMA, the
brother of Lord KRISHNA. Adishesa is usually described as the son of a rishi, a seer. However, as is common in Indian mythology
many contradictory stories exist, and some say that he was born of SHIVA. He has even been identified with the eternal, all-en¬
compassing BRAHMAN itself.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
ananta -
endless, boundless, eternal, infinite;
N. of Vishnu;
of Sesha (the snake-god);
of Sesha’s brother Vasuki;
of Krishna;
of his brother Baladeva;
of Siva;
of Rudra;
of one of the Visva-devas;
of the 14th Arhat;
the letter A;
N. of Parvatl and of various females;
the plant Sariva;
the sky, atmosphere
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Ananta: Literally “endless”. Name of the snake upon which Vishnu is supposed to sleep, resting on the primordial milk-ocean of
universal goodness. The name stands for eternity. The counterpart name is Adi-Sesha meaning “what originally remains,” i.e. the
eternal present from the most ancient antiquity. This snake is many-headed, signifying the multi-sided nature of creation at any
given moment.
Descriptions
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Dialectics
... Vishnu, who lives in Vaikuntha on the eastern peak of Mount Meru. Here there is a snake with a thousand hoods called Anan-
ta(the Endless)which represents pure duration, and on which Vishnu, ever in meditative repose, reclines. The snake itself is repre¬
sented as floating in an ocean of milk, which stands for the pure life-value of abundance or mercy, which is boundless.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
ananta - from a = “not” + anta = “end”.
Sanskrit
Ananta — 3n-ti
ananta - snprtr
Ananya
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Ananya — ... similar but not equal; nondifferent; identical; nonseparate.
1. One who has realized his or her oneness with the Absolute (Brahman).
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
ananya -
no other, not another, not different, identical;
self;
not having a second, unique;
not more than one, sole;
having no other (object), undistracted;
not attached or devoted to any one else
Descriptions
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Bhagavad Gita
The samnyasin (renouncer of actions) here represents a thorough-going contemplative or yogi with whom no question of having to
do anything arises. His yoga has the character of being ananya (without any extraneous factors
and consists of being wholly absorbed in the Absolute).
Sivananda tradition
Krishnananda. The secret of the Katha upanishad
Ananya, grammatically, means ‘other than what is already there’, or ‘different from what is there’, or ‘non-difference’. This word
occurs also in the Bhagavadgita, and even there the commentators vary in the interpretation of what it really signifies. The teacher
should not be an anya, or an ‘other’, but must be an ananya, a ‘non-other’. An ananya, is one who is ‘not different from that which
he teaches’. Nowadays, we have learned men, professors, who are supposed to be repositories of knowledge, but their life is
different from what they preach. They are anya or ‘other’ from knowledge. The practical life of a professor is different from what he
teaches in his college. When knowledge is different from life, such knowledge becomes a husk without substance. It is a burden
that you carry, like an ass carrying bricks. Knowledge becomes valuable when it becomes ananya with one’s own life.
Ananya-manas
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Bhagavad Gita
ananya manasah (mind strictly exclusive of all extraneous interests).
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Ananya-manas: The state in which one experiences one’s mind as fully identified with the cosmic mind.
Related words
Anya
Sanskrit
Ananya — TFF^T
ananya - sffrt
Anatma
Variant spellings
anatma
anatman
anatman
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Anatman — ... without substance; not-self.
1. The Buddhist theory of the nonexistence of the soul.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
anatman -
not spiritual, corporeal, destitute of spirit or mind
Wikipedia
In Buddhism, anatta (Pali) or anatman (Sanskrit: 3HidH'd) refers to the notion of “not- self”. In the early texts, the Buddha common¬
ly uses the word in the context of teaching that all things perceived by the senses (including the mental sense) are not really “I” or
“mine”, and for this reason one should not cling to them.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Anatma (Anatman): Non-self.
Descriptions
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
In Chapter Six, verses 5 and 6 [Bhagavad Gita], we are given the instruction that the Self should be raised by the Self, and the
Self should never let down the Self, the Self is the best friend of the Self, and the Self can also become its own worst enemy.
Whenever you consider part of the Self as non-Self, that non-Self itself will become your enemy, it will behave as if it is your ene¬
my.
We can experience this in our everyday life. If I consider a certain person as my very Self then it will be a great joy to have him
around. Everything we do brings great joy to my heart: seeing him, talking with him, admiring him. The joy does not happen any¬
where else than in my heart, so I am bringing joy to myself by giving my love to him. But if I consider him as not being a part of
me, as not belonging to me as part of my Self, he may become my enemy. He is an ‘other’, and the very fact of seeing him walk
into my room fills me with rage. My body starts shivering and trembling with anger. I cause myself great pain by hating him in this
way, pain which may not affect him at all. Then I feel fear that this fellow has come to do some evil to me. I avoid him because I
fear for my safety: he is my enemy and may become violent. He may take away my possessions. I start living in fear.
Of course, its all just an attitude within me. I can make myself happy in my friend’s presence, or I can make myself very miserable
just by changing my attitude. This is what the Gita calls making the anatma, the non-Self, behave as the enemy. In considering
part of your own Self as non-Self, you make that part a potential enemy. In one way or another we are all doing this every day by
alienating people, by negating people, by cultivating discontent within ourselves. It is a scourge, a plague. If we do not like the
presence of certain people, their very look or sound, we don’t have anything to do with them. In this way we chop up our world into
so many small bits and poison several of them.
Ramakrishna tradition
Nirmalananda. Commentary on the Bhagavad Gita
... very important teaching known in Sanskrit as anatma-the teaching regarding what is not the self. Buddha emphasized this
greatly, and was being completely traditional in doing so. Sadly, those outside India who encountered his teachings thought that
the term (anatta in Pali) meant there is no self. But the term means not-self, not no-self, which would be niratma or niratta. So
wherever we see change.. .that is not the self.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
anatman - from an = “not” + atman = “Self”.
Related words
Atman
Sanskrit
Anatman —
/
anatman - 3HicfHd
Annamaya kosha
Variant spellings
annamaya kosha
annamayakosa
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Annamaya-kosa — ... “the sheath of food”
1. It is the outermost sheath enveloping the individual soul. It is made of food and is also called the physical body or the gross
body. (See sthula-sarlra.)
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
annamayakosa -
the gross material body (which is sustained by food = sthula-sarlra)
Wikipedia
Annamaya kosha. This is the sheath of the physical self, named from the fact that it is nourished by food. Living through this layer
man identifies himself with a mass of skin, flesh, fat, bones, and filth, while the man of discrimination knows his own self, the only
reality that there is, as distinct from the body.
Descriptions
Ramakrishna tradition
Ramakrishna. Sayings of Sri Ramakrishna
When the mind is attached to the consciousness of the external world, it sees gross objects and abides in the Annamaya-kosa,
the physical sheath of the soul, which depends on food.
Diagram: The five sheaths (pancha-kosas)
Related words
Kosha
Sthula-sarira
Sanskrit
Annamaya-kosa —
annamayakosa -
Antahkarana
Variant spellings
antahkarana
antahkarana
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Antah-karana — ... the internal organ; inner sense; inner instrument; “inner causes”
1. It is comprised of the intellect, the mind, the ego, and the consciousness (buddhi, manas, ahankara, and cit), according to Ad-
vaita Vedanta. The Sankhya school recognizes only the intellect, mind, and ego as comprising the inner organ.
2. It is the seat of the functions of the senses as distinct from their outer organs. It receives and arranges what is conveyed to it
through the senses. It reflects objects by its relation with the self (purusa) according to Sankhya or by its relation to the Self (At¬
man) according to Advaita Vedanta.
3. According to Advaita Vedanta, the perceived variations of different individuals’ cognitions are due to the differences in their re¬
spective antahkaranas.
4. The inner organ functions by streaming out to an object, illumining it, assuming its shape, and then cognizing it according to
Advaita Vedanta.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
antahkarana -
the internal organ, the seat of thought and feeling, the mind, the thinking faculty, the heart, the conscience, the soul
Wikipedia
In Hindu philosophy, the antahkarana (Skt.) refers to the highest, i.e. most abstract, part of the mind, and it may include the con¬
crete part of the mind (manas). In the consciousness level classification karanopadhi it is regarded as separate from the emotion¬
al part of the mind, which in another classification (that of planes) is regarded as being on the same level of mind. Antahkarana
is higher than that level because a lower upadhi than karana includes the emotions. Antahkarana is called the link between the
higher mind and the enclosing soul (buddhi) consciousness, the latter of which is ‘thoughtful consciousness that can think of the
mind’ (some would call this ‘higher mind’). In Dharma (Sanatana, etc.) the antahkarana is described as the reincarnating part of
the mind, so it has a special link with the soul.
The concept has been compared to that of Nous, which when capitalized includes the human monad (or jivatman) and beyond,
i.e. it is the higher manas within the jive/jivatma (monad), which links its own part of the jivatma with the rupa or arupa manas
above the separate kama-manas.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Antahkaranas
The common name for the four mental faculties involved in the process of knowing: namely manas (questioning), buddhi (reason¬
ing), citta (memorizing and recalling) and ahamkara (relating what is known to oneself in terms of value experience).
Descriptions
General
Hiriyanna. Outlines of Indian philosophy
The internal organ (antah-karana) ... is here [in Advaita Vedantajconceived as bhautika [formed of the gross elements] and as
constituted of all the five elements. Though it consists of all the five elements, tejas predominates, which accounts for its being
sometimes described as taijasa (‘made out of tejas’). It accordingly partakes more of the character of that element than of any
other and is unstable—always liable to alter its form either where it is or where it reaches by ‘streaming out,’ as it is said, through
a sense. That is, the antah-karana is always active, except only in states like susupti, where it becomes latent. Each of the forms it
assumes by exercising this activity is known as a vrtti as in the Sahkhya-Yoga. The explanation that all these organs are bhautika
is important on account of the recognition it implies of the indispensableness of physical aids for the manifestation of conscious¬
ness. Though indispensable, their distinction from the psychical element is not in the least ignored. It is in fact the constant asso¬
ciation of these two incompatibles as implied in common experience that forms ... the crux of the philosophic problem according to
Samkara.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Bhagavad Gita
From the light the Lord lends to the three modalities constituting the body, there arises the inner organ, which in its turn brings
about ego-consciousness, mind, intellect, and the organs of perception and action. In this sense every individuated self is a reflec¬
tion of the Divine in the physical organism. When a person dies, all that happens is the withdrawal of the circumscribed Spirit back
to its original source. When the same is re-projected in matter to again function in accordance with the impressions formed in the
previous life (vasanas), it may be called reincarnation.
Sankara tradition
Sadananda. Vedantasara, tr. Nikhilananda
Antahkarana—The inner organ, of which Chitta, Buddhi, Manas and Ahamkara are the different aspects.
Antahkarana, manas, citta, buddhi, ahankara
General
Dasgupta. A history of Indian philosophy
The same antahkarana, according to its diverse functions, is called manas, buddhi, ahamkara, and citta. In its functions as doubt
it is called manas, as originating definite cognitions it is called buddhi. As presenting the notion of an ego in consciousness aham¬
kara, and as producing memory citta. These four represent the different modifications or states (vrtti) of the same entity (which in
itself is but a special kind of modification of ajnana as antahkarana).
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Love and Blessings
All knowledge begins with the four-fold inner organ. The sense organs do not operate unless they are commissioned by the inner
organ. Then alone arises the world of external objects and the various universes of interest. The four aspects of the inner organ
are:
1) manas, the interrogating or inquiring aspect of consciousness;
2) chitta, the aspect of consciousness that memorizes and recalls;
3) buddhi, the aspect of consciousness that judges and arrives at certitude; and
4) ahamkara, the ego factor that is affected, positively, negatively or neutrally.
Nitya. Principles and practice of Patanjalis Yoga
Both Yoga and Vedanta allude to the inner organ (antahkarana), an inner mechanism with four distinct agencies of operation: the
interrogative aspect (manas); the faculty of memory and recall (citta); the faculty of judgment (buddhi); and the ego, the affective
core that is intimately connected with the biological as well as psychological individuation of experiencing pain and pleasure and
all such dualities of life (ahamkara). The instrument of the registry of stimulation and recall of memory is a repository of all the col¬
orations and conditionings that happen to a person during his or her lifetime. Hence all conditional reactions throughout life stem
from this faculty (citta). Its modulation is called citta vrtti.
... The physical body encased in skin marks the separation of one individual from another. It is the physiological scaffolding of the
psychic interior operating mechanism called the antahkarana, which functions as a liaison between sense organs as well as be¬
tween the sensory and motor systems. As we have seen, the four aspects of the inner organ are:
1. the mind (manas)
2. the structuring of associations of memories with an inquiry as to their relevancy in presenting with a will to know (citta)
3. the crucial judgment that is to be made about every situation to which attention is given (buddhi)
4. the affectivity registered for the future retention of a memory that can always hold out a memory tag to caution the jiva of its
affective importance, pleasurable, painful, or indifferent (ahamkara)
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
Take your mind back a few hours to when you were in deep sleep. At that time there was no consciousness. This can be ana¬
logically related to the world being completely merged in darkness. As dawn comes, things slowly begin to appear. Similarly, the
deep unconscious in you slowly moves aside, and a vague awareness of consciousness comes. When that awareness becomes
assertive, questions come to your mind. “Is it morning? What time is it now? What am I going to do today?” There is always some
question coming up in your mind. This interrogative aspect of consciousness is called manas.
According to Vedantins, there are four categories of wakeful consciousness. The first is this questioning aspect, which is an at¬
tempt to assign meaning to whatever confronts you. Meaning is given to sense impressions or stray ideas by relating them to
something already known. New impressions or ideas are oriented in relation to previously experienced situations in time and
space. When they are thus given a formal fixation, they find a place in your scheme of understanding. In order to do this, you re¬
call the memories which seem to be associated with what is being presented to your senses or mind. This faculty employed in the
recall of memory is called cittam. It is the second category of consciousness.
After the relevant memory associations are revived, they are then used to decide the nature of the impression or idea under exam¬
ination. The third category of consciousness is a faculty used to predicate the subject appropriately. It is called buddhi.
Now you are in a state of suspense until you make a judgement on the value of the new stimulus. Once its nature is decided,
you feel either satisfied or disturbed by it. This feeling affects your personal identity in a variety of ways. The fourth category of
consciousness is the affectivity of the ego, called ahamkara. Aham means T. You relate your personal experience to a central
consciousness in you called T which is affected in terms of pain, pleasure or indifference. With this, one unit of impression has
been almost instantaneously processed regarding its significance to the individual. Taken all together, these four aspects-manas,
cittam, buddhi, and ahamkara - are called karanam.
After going through the process of questioning, recollecting, reasoning and being affected, you pass on to the next stage: reacting
to the situation. For this you need the use of your organs of perception and action. The senses, body and mind all come together
in a confection which becomes a holistic action, monitored by the major urge, drive or interest that dominates that particular mo¬
ment of your life. Each action-inaction complex contains a whole universe of interest. After one interest is fulfilled or thwarted, your
mind moves on to another; thus you go from one world of interest to another in a continuous sequence. These worlds spring up
from the awakening of the latent urges lying buried in the unconscious.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
... divisions of antahkaranas as follows: (1) Ullam, (2) mind, (3) intellect, (4) chittam, (5) ego.
Sri Bhagavan said: Four divisions are usual. The fifth item ullam has been brought in to correspond to five tattvas thus:
(1) Ullam (consciousness) is akasa (ether) tattva from the cranium to the brows.
(2) Manas (thinking faculty) is vayu (air) tattva from the brows to the throat.
(3) Buddhi (intellect) is agni (light) tattva from the throat to the heart.
(4) Chitta (memory) is jala (water) tattvafrom the heart to the navel, and,
(5) Ahankar (ego) is prithvi (earth) tattvafrom the navel to the coccyx.
Ullam is thus the pure mind or the mind in its pure being, i.e., mind divested of all thoughts. It is the ether of mind corresponding to
the expanse of mind without being crowded by thoughts. When a person wakes up from sleep the head is raised and there is the
light of awareness. This light was already there in the heart which is later reflected on the brain and appears as consciousness.
But this is not particularised until ahankarsteps in. In the undifferentiated state it is cosmic (cosmic mind or cosmic consciousness).
This state lasts usually for a minute interval and passes off unnoticed. It becomes particularised or differentiated by the intrusion
of the ego and the person says T. This is always associated with an entity (here, the body). So the body is identified as T and all
else follows.
Because ullam is only the reflected light, it is said to be the moon. The original light is in the heart which is said to be the sun.
M.: The inner organs (antakaranas) are classified as five: (1) Knowledge - Jnana; (2) Mind - Manas; (3) Intellect - Buddhi; (4)
Memory - Chitta; and (5) The ego - Ahankara; some say only the latter four; others say only two, namely (1) Manas, mind and (2)
Ahankara, the ego; still others say the Antahkarana is only one whose different functions make it appear differently and hence
its different names. Heart is thus the source of the Antahkaranas. There is the body which is insentient; there is the Self which is
eternal and self-luminous; in between the two there has arisen a phenomenon, namely the ego, which goes under these different
names, mind (manas), intellect (buddhi), memory (chitta), the ego (ahankara), power (sakti), life current (prana), etc. Seek your
source; the search takes you to the Heart automatically. The antahkaranas are only ideas (kalpana) to explain the subtle body
(sukshma sarira).
Sankara tradition
Shankara. Vivekachudamani, tr. Madhavananda
The inner organ (Antahkarana) is called Manas, Buddhi, ego or Chitta, according to their respective functions: Manas, from its
considering the pros and cons of a thing; Buddhi, from its property of determining the truth of objects; the ego, from its identifica¬
tion with this body as one’s own self; and Chitta, from its function of remembering things it is interested in.
See: Jnana, antahkarana, sakshin
See: Sakshin and antahkarana
See also:
Sakshin and sushupti
in Sakshin and jiva: Hiriyanna. Outlines of Indian philosophy
Related words
Ahankara
Buddhi
Chitta
Manas
Vritti
Sanskrit
Antah-karana —
antahkarana -
Anu
Variant spellings
anu
anu
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Anu — ... “atom”; atomic; elementary particle; that which cannot be further divided; an individual being
1. The smallest indivisible particle of matter of which all material things are ultimately produced. They are said to be eternal.
2. Visistadvaita Vedanta calls the size of the soul “atomic.”
3. According to Jainism, atoms have touch, taste, smell, and color. Two atoms form a compound (skandha). They maintain that
atoms are in contact with one another (a fact which Buddhists deny).
4. According to the Vaisesikas, they are insentient. Two of them grouped together form a dyad and three dyads together form a
triad, which is the smallest visible substance. The four elements-earth, air, fire, and water-are atomic in their primary form. The
variety seen in the universe is due to the number of atoms in a particular object’s composition. Atoms are eternal and qualitatively
differ as smell, taste, color, and touch. Atoms have no parts, are nonspatial, and are globular (parimandalya).
5. In Kashmir Savisim, it is a technical term referring to the individual soul (jiva).
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
anu -
fine, minute, atomic;
an atom of matter;
‘an atom of time’, the 54675000th part of a muhurta (of 48 minutes);
N. of Siva
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Anu ... fine, minute, atomic, (in Vaisesika) a positional reality that has no length, breadth, or thickness; cf. paramanu.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Anu: Atom. Litterally, “the indivisible.”
Descriptions
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
From the time of Democritus, Heraclitus and Lucippus in ancient Greece and Kanada in India, it has been believed that the world
is constituted of minute particles, atoms or anu-s. When two anu’s come together they become something new. Three anu’s joined
become something else. Quantitative variations therefore cause qualitative changes. As everything is made up of particles, all
things here are a manifestation of very specific elements in particular combinations.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
Anu is an atom, infinitesimal. It ends in subtle perception. The subtlety is of the sukshma body, i.e., the mind. Beyond the mind
there is the Self. The greatest of things are also conceptions, the conceptions are of the mind; beyond the mind there is the Self.
So the Self is subtler than the subtlest.
See: Pramanu, anu, vayu
Etymology
General
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
anu - from *al-nu < l-E root ale, to grind, crush
Related words
Paramanu
Sanskrit
Anu —
anu - sroj
Anubhava
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Anubhava — ... perception; direct presentation; knowledge; experience
1. According to Jainism, the result or retribution of an action; intensity.
2. According to Advaita Vedanta, it is the final court of appeal: hear the truth-sruti; reflect upon it- yukti; direct personal experi-
ence-anubhava.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
anubhava -
perception, apprehension, fruition;
understanding; impression on the mind not derived from memory;
experience, knowledge derived from personal observation or experiment;
result, consequence
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Anubhava: When the mind by intellectual sympathy enters into the reality of a subject with full sense of identity with it, as when a
man of wisdom enters Brahman-knowledge and thus becomes Brahman in effect, his is a state of anubhava.
Descriptions
General
Deussen. Outlines of Indian Philosophy
... the Atman, the only godly being is not unattainable to us, is even not far from us, for we have it fully and totally in ourselves
as our own metaphysical entity; and here, when returning from the outside and apparent world to the deepest secrets of our own
nature, we may come to God, not by knowledge, but by anubhava, by absorption into our own self. There is a great difference
between knowledge, in which subject and object are distinct from each other, and anubhava, where subject and object coincide
in the same. He who by anubhava comes to the great intelligence, “aham brahma asmi”, obtains a state called by Qankara Sam-
radhanam, accomplished satisfaction
Hiriyanna. Outlines of Indian philosophy
... the distinction between presentative cognition (anubhava) and representative cognition (smrti). The former generally leaves
behind a trace or impression called bhavana or samskara which abides in the self and, when revived, leads to recollection of what
was previously cognized. That is smrti or memory. Such bhavana is a seventh specific quality of the self.
Presentative cognition may be broadly divided into two, viz. mediate and immediate, the manas being a necessary aid to both.
The latter is termed pratyaksa which may roughly be taken as equivalent to sensation and perception; and the former, such as
inferential knowledge, is known as paroksa which is based upon pratyaksa and needs no further reference in this section. On the
primary character of pratyaksa is based its definition as knowledge which does not presuppose other knowledge. When we infer
that there is fire on the hill, we should previously have observed smoke there, not to mention our acquaintance with the induc¬
tive relation between smoke and fire. But to cognize blueness, say, no such preliminary knowledge is necessary. That is, our first
ideas are furnished by the senses.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Principles and practice of Patanjalis Yoga
In the state of the incarnate, experiencing pain and pleasure through sensations is considered very important by embodied beings.
Sankara discredits experience (anubhava) as not pertaining to the Self (atman). The English word ex-perience clearly indicates
its own limitation: it is knowing something outside the Self, that is, the non-Self. Sankara substitutes anubhava, experience, with
anubhGti, imperience: an identification that comes through the establishment of an inner unity aided by intuition. It can only be
imperientially comprehended.
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
In English, the word ‘experience’ implies an interaction between the knower and what is known. In Sanskrit the word for experi¬
ence, anubhava, means becoming likewise. It is not an interaction between the subject and object, but a transformation of the sub¬
ject. The knower is transforming his consciousness of the moment into what is known. In the present context, experience should
be understood as a subjective transformation. It is “in- formation” in the true sense of the word.
There is a state of knowing in which you become oblivious of your personal involvement as the knower. When you are fully en¬
gaged in an experience you are not simultaneously thinking of yourself. Ideas such as “I am knowing, I am enjoying,” etc. only
come when you ruminate on your mental states or communicate them to someone else. Otherwise there is just knowing by itself.
It is the structure of the language into which we put our thoughts that creates differences between thoughts and things. For exam¬
ple, if you see a bird in a tree you don’t think it is happening inside your head as an occurrence of knowledge, you see it as a bird
“out there.” Then the known itself is both the knowing and the knower. It is as if the knower is interjected into the known. You don’t
have to struggle in order to bring what is known into you, or to fuse the knower into the known. It all happens spontaneously and
instantly.
Etymology
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
anubhava - from anu = “according”, and bhav = “to become”.
Sanskrit
Anubhava — a^Mci
anubhava - spprsr
Anya
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
anya -
other, different;
other than, different from, opposed to
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Anya: The other. That kind of knowledge which cognizes multiple appearances.
Descriptions
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
...I have to articulate meaningful things, and you have to listen and make meaning out of them by pondering over them. So we are
all engaged in activities all the time. All these activities are happening with one consciousness.
We are always moving, shifting and changing our attention from the particular to the universal and from the universal back to the
particular. The universal aspect is here called sama, sameness, and the particular aspect is called anya, the other. As you can
see, sama is etymologically related to ‘same’ and anya to ‘another’.
... the Guru says if you are always seeing things as distinct and separate, you are in a world called anya.
... The real issue ... is how to win over anya. Anya means the tendency of proliferating otherness. We are disturbed only because
of this anya, this otherness. Wherever otherness comes it interacts with the T in us, affecting our balance. If the ‘other’ is not
there, our T has nothing to fight with. The cancellation of the ‘other’ and the ego brings peace.
And how can we cancel out the effect of the ‘other’ ? The T and the ‘other’ must be unified. By knowing what constitutes the T is
the same reality as that which constitutes the ‘other’ brings unification. We can also know that this T is a fantasized modification of
consciousness and the ‘other’ is a fantasized projection of consciousness. Both are false. Once we know that neither the T nor the
‘other’ exist, there is no trouble. But it is not as easy as it sounds.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Osborne. The collected works of Ramana Maharshi
43. Gods and goddesses, merits, demerits and their fruits, which are likewise anya (other than oneself), objects of attachment and
the knowledge of those objects — all these will lead one to bondage in mighty samsara.
Related words
Ananya
Samya
Sanskrit
anya - snrq-
Variant spellings
ap
apah
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Ap (apah) — ... water
1. One of the five elements. It possesses color, taste, and touch
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
ap-
work;
water;
air, the intermediate region;
the Waters considered as divinities
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Apas ... Water as an element, (in Vaisesika) the second Eternal Reality (Dravya); (in Sarhkhya) the fourth Sense-Particular
(Mahabhuta), the principle of liquidity, its function is contraction, its Special Property (Visesa) is Flavour (Rasa), its General Quali¬
ties (Samanya Gunas), are Form (Rupa), Touch (Sparsa), and Sound (Sabda)
Wikipedia
Ap (ap-) is the Vedic Sanskrit term for “water”.
Descriptions
General
Wikipedia
In the Rigveda, several hymns are dedicated to “the waters” (apas): 7.49, 10.9, 10.30, 10.47. In the oldest of these, 7.49, the wa¬
ters are connected with the draught of Indra (Soma, referred to as “the offspring of water”, napat apam).
In Hindu philosophy, the term refers to water as an element, one of the Panchamahabhuta, or “five great elements”. In Hinduism, it
is also the name of the deva, a personification of water, (one of the Vasus in most later Puranic lists).
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Apas from the root word ap, water
See also:
in Mahabhutas: Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Evolution of prakriti (Sankhya)
Diagram: Mahabhutas (Five Elements)
Etymology
General
Wikipedia
...in Classical Sanskrit occurring only in the plural, apas (sometimes re-analysed as a thematic singular, apa-), whence Hindi ap.
The term is from PIE hxap “water”. The Indo-lranian word survives also, as the Persian word for water, Ab, e.g. in Punjab (from
pancapas “five waters”). In archaic ablauting contractions, the laryngeal of the PIE root remains visible in Vedic Sanskrit, e.g.
pratlpa- “against the current”, from *proti- hxp- o-. The word has many cognates in archaic European toponyms (e.g. Mess- apia,
perhaps also Avon).
Related words
Mahabhuta
Rasa
Sanskrit
Ap ( apah ) — 37TJ 3TTIT:
ap - 3tr
apah - stpt:
Apavada
Variant spellings
apavada
apavada
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Apavada — ... statement; recession; subsequent denial; refutation (see adhyaropa-apavada)
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
apavada -
evil speaking, reviling, blaming, speaking ill of (gen.);
denial, refutation, contradiction;
a special rule setting aside a general one, exception (opposed to utsarga);
order, command;
a peculiar noise made by hunters to entice deer
Sankara tradition
Sadananda. Vedantasara, tr. Nikhilananda
When the rope, through illusion, appears as a snake, it does not actually change into the snake. Apavada destroys this illusion and
brings out the truth. Similarly Brahman, through illusion, appears as the phenomenal world. The breaking up of this illusion—which
consists only of name and form—and the consequent discovery of Brahman, which is the underlying reality, is called Apavada.
Descriptions
Sankara tradition
Karapatra. Advaita Bodha Deepika
Removal of Superimposition thus consists in the knowledge of non-dual Reality, Pure Being, beyond Maya and its effects. Its reali¬
sation is Liberation while alive in the body (Jivanmukti).
Sankara. Atmabodha, tr. Nikhilananda
Apavada, or negation, is the elimination, through discrimination, of falsely superimposed attributes in order to discover the true na¬
ture of a thing. Thus, by negating the attributes of the illusory water in a mirage, one discovers the true nature of the desert; by ne¬
gating the attributes of the illusory snake, the true nature of the rope; by negating the attributes of the illusory man, the true nature
of the stump; by negating the attributes of the illusory silver, the true nature of the shells. In a like manner, by negating, through
discrimination, the attributes of the non-Self, one discovers the true nature of the Self, or Atman, and by negating the attributes of
the relative world, the true nature of Brahman.
See: Adhyaropa-apavada
Related words
Adhyaropa
Sanskrit
Apavada — 3iqc<iq
apavada - 3n=iK
Apara
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Apara — ... lower; lower knowledge
1. A term employed in the Upanisads to describe knowledge relating to the phenomenal world.
2. The Supreme has two natures: lower and higher. (See para.)
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
apara -
having nothing beyond or after, having no rival or superior;
(fr. a’pa), posterior, later, latter (opposed to pG’rva; often in comp.);
following;
western;
inferior, lower (opposed to pa’ra);
different (with abl.);
distant, opposite.
Sometimes apara is used as a conjunction to connect words or sentences e.g. apararh-ca, moreover;
the hind foot of an elephant
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Darshana Mala
That because of which emanate all the sense-objects that constitute the gross world, is called apara. It in essence is the concreti-
zation of the atma’s intentions (adhyatma-sthula- samkalpana-mayi )(cf. para)
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Apara: Relativistic, conditional.
Related words
Opposite: Para
Sanskrit
Apara — 3TPT
apara - snr
see also: para
Apara-brahman
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Apara-brahman — ... the supreme Reality as conditioned by attributes.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Apara-brahman: Lower brahman as opposed to para-brahman (supreme brahman). The causal Reality conceived as appearing as
all the effects.
Related words
Opposite: Para-brahman
Saguna-brahman
Sanskrit
Apara-brahman — 3TP7^PT
apara-brahman -sprr^T^PT
Aranyaka
Variant spellings
aranyaka
aranyaka
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Aranyaka — ... “forest book”; “forest born”; scriptural text
1. That section of the Vedas included in the Brahmana section which gives philosophical prose treatises. It interprets the ritual
section by allegorizing them and prescribing various modes of meditation (upasana) and/or symbolic worship. It was mainly meant
for ascetics who lived in the forest.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
aranyaka -
forest, wild, forest-born, produced in a forest, relating to a forest or a forest animal, (the aranyakam parva of the Maha-bharata is
either the whole third book or only the first section of it);
a forester, an inhabitant of the woods;
N[ame] of a class of religious and philosophical writings closely connected with the Brahmanas and called Aranyakas because
either composed in forests or studied there, (the Upanishads are considered to be attached to them.)
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Aranyaka (“Forest books”). General designation for a type of literature contained in the sacred texts known as the Vedas. The
Aranyakas are transitional in nature; in their content they move away from the focus on ritual and sacrifice found in the Brahmana
literature and foreshadow the later, more speculative texts known as the Upanishads. Because of their name, the Aranyakas are
widely believed to have been composed in the forests, perhaps by ascetics who had left formal society. The tone in these texts is
questioning and speculative, and in stylistic terms there is no clear break between the Aranyakas and the Upanishads: one of the
earliest upanishads is named Brhadaranyaka (“Great Forest-Book”) Upanishad, which reinforces the connection.
Wikipedia
The Aranyakas are part of the Hindu sruti, the four Vedas; they were composed in late Vedic Sanskrit typical of the Brahmanas
and early Upanishads; indeed, they frequently form part of either the Brahmanas or the Upanishads.
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Aranyaka: The four Vedas were later supplemented and appended with extra portions dealing with many injunctions and laws con¬
nected with various rituals. The simplicity of Vedic worship gave place to elaborate discussions on the merits of certain rituals and
their validity, etc. Before attaining to the status of proper critical discussion, this body of literature came to be known as Aranya¬
ka, both because of the complicated nature of the teaching (a forest-Aranya), as also perhaps because of the stage of forest-life
(Vanaprastha) to which the injunctions often referred. They mark the pre-Upanishadic stage in the development cf Vedic lore as it
developed through the centuries.
Descriptions
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
The Aranyakas or “forest books,” originally part of the BRAHMANA sections within the VEDAS, contain esoteric interpretations
of the Vedic rituals. They show the ritual actors performing aspects of the ritual internally and esoterically while meditating in the
forest. In the development of Indian tradition, the Aranyakas are in one sense transitional between the typical Brahmana philos¬
ophy, which explains the Vedic acts in practical terms, and the UPANISHADS, which delve into the higher philosophical vision of
the Vedas.
Wikipedia
Aranyakas ... contain Brahmana-style discussion of ritual regarded as especially dangerous, such as the Mahavrata and Pravar-
gya, [1] and therefore had to be learned in the wilderness. They have also served as receptacles of later additions to the Vedic
corpus. However, they have nothing to do, as later tradition has it, with Sannyasins or Vanaprasthas (ascetics) and they are not of
“mystical” nature but very close in nature to the Brahmanas proper rather than to the esoteric Upanishads.
... The Aranyakas discuss sacrifices, in the style of the Brahmanas, and thus are primarily concerned with the proper performance
of ritual (orthopraxy). The Aranyakas were restricted to a particular class of rituals that nevertheless were frequently included in
the Vedic curriculum.
See: Brahmana, Aranyaka, Upanishad
See: Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads
Diagram: Summary of Vedic literature
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
aranyaka - from the verb root r = “to move” + the prefix a = “away”
Wikipedia
“Aranyaka” (aranyaka) means “belonging to the wilderness” (aranya), that is, as Taittiriya Ar. 2 says, “from where one cannot see
the roofs of the settlement”.
Related words
Brahmana
Upanishad
Veda
Sanskrit
Aranyaka — 3 ii<ut»ch
aranyaka -
Arivu
Definitions
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Wisdoms frame of reference
Arivu: A Malayalam word meaning ‘knowledge’. Narayana Guru uses it as a synonym for Self, Consciousness and sometimes on
par with Subsistence (Cit).
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Arivu: A Malayalam word for “knowledge.” Narayana Guru prefers this word, especially when he refers to Pure Consciousness.
The word is also used to denote any kind of knowledge.
Descriptions
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Consciousness (arivu) alone is real. In its absence, the existence or otherwise of anything is irrelevant. Arivu unravels itself as
everything, and is categorized into subjective and objective knowledges, both having eight constituent factors each. Therefore, the
subjective and objective aspects of knowledge have a perfect parity. However, these analyses and classifications are meaningful
only when we subject the indivisible arivu to such divisions. For even with such analyses and divisions, in reality, arivu remains
indivisible and as one.
... What in essence is this Substance referred to both as atman and brahman? Let us, as Narayana Guru himself does in Verse
3 of his Advaita Dipika (Lamp of Non-Duality), analyze something that forms part of the world, e.g., a piece of cloth. The cloth
when analyzed disappears in the being of yarn. The yarn, taken apart, disappears in the being of cotton fibres. The fibre, likewise,
disappears in the being of constituent basic elements- akasa (space), vayu (air), agni (fire), ap (water) and prthivi (earth). These
elements, in their pure and uncompounded form, have no actual existence other than as concepts. The existence of concepts is in
consciousness or mind alone. In other words, consciousness is the one Substance that manifests itself as the basic elements, as
fibres, as yarn, as cloth, as everything perceptible, in short as the world. This unconditioned Consciousness, as the all- underlying
Substance, is called cit or samvit in Sanskrit, and the Malayalam word the Guru prefers is arivu. The Reality we are in search of,
thus, is this cit or arivu.
...Matter and life are simply two different facets of the self - unfoldment of one arivu. Relating the two as cause and effect is mean¬
ingless. The only causal Substance is arivu, and it, because of the mysterious creative urge inherent in it, unfolds itself as both
matter and life.
Related words
Atman
Brahman
Cit
Meditation
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Narayana Guru
Narayana Guru raises arivu (knowledge) to the status of the Absolute. As counterparts of a dialectical situation, subject and object
cancel each other out. Thus we arrive at a notion of the indescribable which is at once immanent as well as transcendent. Thing¬
ness and knowledge become synonymous and exchangeable. The fourth verse of the Atmopadesha satakam thus brings the
quaternion of the four limbs of the Absolute [see Mandukya Upanishad] to its epistemological finality where the unspeakable fourth
culminates in the silence that follows the secret syllable AUM:
Knowledge, the objectivization of the value of the known
and one’s personal knowledge are nothing other than one primal glory (mahas);
merging into that infinite supreme
knowledge, become that alone.
(Atmopadesha satakam, verse 4)
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
The word the Guru uses repeatedly ... is arivu, meaning the Word or Knowledge. We often think of knowledge as merely pieces
of information. To correct such a faulty notion at the very outset, the Guru qualifies arivu, knowledge, as arivilumeria arivu, the
Knowledge that surpasses all knowledge. It is further described as that which is seen as the outside world and experienced within
as one’s subjective awareness.
The word ‘knowledge’ in the English language is used in a passive sense, so by translating arivu into knowledge we minimize its
meaning. The dynamic power implied in the word arivu is not in knowledge. When we hear the word 1 knowledge’ we think of some
impression being presented to the mind as a state of awareness, but this is only one small aspect of the word we are translating
here. We have already defined the Self as that knowledge which shines by its own light, and by which alone all our experiences
are produced. When we say ‘ consciousness’ we also imply the unconscious, which is the substratum of consciousness. In fact,
consciousness is only a very fragmentary part of the general unconscious. Similarly, when we speak of arivu, we also mean that
which is prior to a thing that is being known, what the state is in which it is known, in which direction it moves, the reason for such
movement, what it can affect, how it can affect, what motivation arises, and what causes that motivation itself. All these implica¬
tions are to be taken in one sweep to understand the word arivu.
Artha
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Artha — ... wealth; meaning of a word; object; thing; purpose; aim.
1. One of the goals of life (purusartha) sought by individuals. It is the secular value which is both desired and desirable. It satisfies
the acquisitive tendency in individuals. It is the economic value.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
artha -
aim, purpose (very often artham, arthena, arthaya, and arthe ifc. or with gen. ‘for the sake of, on account of, in behalf of, for’);
cause, motive, reason;
advantage, use, utility (generally named with kama and dharma see tri-varga; used in wishing well to another dat. or gen.);
thing, object (said of the membrum virile);
object of the senses;
(hence) the number ‘five’;
substance, wealth, property, opulence, money;
(in law) lawsuit, action; sense, meaning, notion
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Artha ... aim, purpose; (in Nyaya) an object of Right Knowledge (Prameya) and defined as the object of the senses (Indriyas), viz.
sound (sabda), touch (sparsa), form (rupa), flavour (rasa), and odour (gandha); wealth, as one of the three objects of human pur¬
suit (Trivarga).
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
Artha is the ordering of one ‘s material affairs so as to conduce to wealth and health. “Wealth” and “health” are the physical plane
correlatives of commonweal, wholeness and holiness. Artha pertains to the Element Earth.
Wikipedia
Artha... is a Sanskrit term meaning “purpose, cause, motive, meaning, notion”.
It refers to the idea of material prosperity. In Hinduism, artha is one of the four goals of life, known as purusharthas. It is consid¬
ered to be a noble goal as long as it follows the dictates of Vedic morality. The concept includes achieving widespread fame,
garnering wealth and having an elevated social standing. It is the second of the four purusharthas, the other three being dharma
(righteousness), kama (physical or emotional pleasure) and moksha (liberation). Artha is one of the dharmas (duties) of a person
in the second stage of life, the householder stage, and during this a person must accumulate as much wealth as possible, without
being greedy, to help and support his family.
Descriptions
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Bhagavad Gita
Artha is wealth only when wealth becomes meaningful in its instrumentality to make one happy.
Sankara tradition
Sankara. Atmabodha, tr. Nikhilananda
Artha, or wealth, is a legitimate goal of pursuit at a certain stage of man’s life. It is, with most people, an effective mode of self-ex¬
pression and an important means of establishing fellowship with others. But wealth must be acquired according to dharma, righ¬
teousness; otherwise, instead of serving a spiritual purpose, it will aggravate greed and lust for power and ultimately be a cause of
misery.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
artha — ... from the verb root arth = “ to request the sense, to point out”.
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Artha (from the root arth, to strive to obtain, desire, wish)
Related words
Kama
Dharma
Moksha
Purushartha, the four goals of human life
Sanskrit
Artha —
artha - spyr
Artha-Vada
Variant spellings
artha-vada
arthavada
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Artha-vada — ... eulogistic meaning; corroborative sentence; supplimental texts which are explanatory to injunctive texts; nones¬
sential statements
1. Sentences in the Vedas which, occurring in context, may either describe existing things, praise, or denounce some deed of an
injunction. They are held to be subordinate to injunctive sentences, according to the MTmamsakas. They indicate their meaning
only as syntactically connected with the injunctive sentences.
2. They are of three kinds: figurative statements (guna-vada); statements which reiterate what is already known (anu-vada); and a
statement of a fact which is not already known and which is not contradictory to known facts (bhutartha-vada).
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
arthavada -
explanation of the meaning (of any precept);
praise, eulogium
Descriptions
General
Hiriyanna. Outlines of Indian philosophy
... the well-known division of the Veda broadly into two parts, viz. vidhi or ‘injunction’ and artha-vada or ‘explanatory passage.’ The
latter, consisting of statements describing things as they are or were, have accordingly no independent logical status and are to be
understood as complementary to what is taught in the other portion, viz. vidhi. As complements of injunctions they commend what
is prescribed; as complements of prohibitions, they condemn what is forbidden.
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
The method of interpretation of the Vedic texts used by Jaimini is best shown by an outline of the terms used at random through¬
out the text. For this purpose, the contents of the Vedas are classified under five heads: (1) Vidhi (Injunctions), (2) Mantra
(Hymns), (3) Namadheya (Names), (4) Nisedha (Prohibitions), and (5) Arthavada (Explanatory Passages).
... ARTHAVADA—passages in praise or blame of a Vidhi or Nisedha.
A. Gunavada—a statement made by the text that is contradictory to the existing state of the affair and means of proof.
B. Anuvada—a statement made by the text which is in keeping with the existing state of facts.
C Bhutarthavada—a statement made which is neither against the existing state of facts nor is it m conformity with it.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Bhagavad Gita
The Vedas, at least in the brahmana portion, are full of taboos and obligatory injunctions in connection with what is permissible
or not in sacrifices, recitations, etc. The Vedas ... are well known to be different from Vedanta which is based on artha-vada (free
philosophical criticism and exegesis) while the Vedas are based on viddhi nisheda (injunctions and prohibitions).
Etymology
General
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
arthavada (compounded of artha + vada, qq.v.)
Sanskrit
Art ha-vada — 3T*Jctiq
arthavada - sttwt
Arya
Variant spellings
arya
arya
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Arya — ... the noble; loyal; faithful
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
arya -
a respectable or honourable or faithful man, an inhabitant of aryavarta;
one who is faithful to the religion of his country;
N. of the race which immigrated from Central Asia into aryavarta (opposed to an-arya, dasyu, dasa);
in later times N. of the first three castes (opposed to sudra);
a man highly esteemed, a respectable, honourable man;
a master, an owner;
a friend;
Buddha;
(with Buddhists... a man who has thought on the four chief truths of Buddhism ... and lives accordingly, a Buddhist priest;
behaving like an aryan, worthy of one, honourable, respectable, noble;
of a good family; excellent; wise; suitable
Wikipedia
Arya is an Old Indie and Old Iranian language self-designator that first appears in the ancient religious literature of the Indians and
of the Iranians. The adjective is significant to Hindus, Zoroastrians, Jains and Buddhists.
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Aryan: Name applied vaguely by historians to tribes who crossed over the Himalaya and penetrated into the matrix of the Indian
life of prehistoric times which consisted of various amorphous formations including the so-called proto-Dravidians.
Descriptions
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Aryan (Arya). In the VEDAS, the earliest Indian texts, the SANSKRIT word Arya had the sense of noble or worthy person. It was
used by the tribes or peoples who recited the Vedas to distinguish themselves from other peoples. Sometimes, in early Sanskrit
the term was used to refer to the “respectable” upper three classes of the Indian tradition, to distinguish them from the disreputa¬
ble classes such as the SHUDRAS and those below them, the untouchables. Most Brahmins still refer to themselves as Aryas, as
do all Buddhists and Jains...
The earliest text of the Vedic tradition, the RIG VEDA, which is set in ancient India, has been dated to around 1500 B.C.E. This
rough estimate refers to the time the text was compiled as an anthology. Parts of the text may thus date back some centuries ear¬
lier, an indication that the Aryas were in India as early as c. 2000 B.C.E.
Vedic references to the Aryas are thus synchronous with the theoretical migration of Indo- European-speaking peoples into India
from the northwest. Much scholarship and speculation have been focused on this issue since at least the 18th century, when it
was discovered that Sanskrit was an Indo-European language related to Latin and Greek, while the languages of southern India
seemed unrelated. The term Arya also appears in ancient Persian texts (it is reflected in the name of the country Iran), and in
Hittite inscriptions from the Middle East around 1500 B.C.E. The name Ireland may also reflect the word, which would be evidence
for a simultaneous Aryan migration to Europe. Recent attempts have been made in India to refute the notion that the Aryans ar¬
rived from outside the country. It is prudent to say that the issue is not yet settled.
Within India itself there are various different understandings of the nature of the Aryans. The linguistic term Dravidian, referring to
the tongues spoken in South India, was sometimes used in the 20th century to designate a people or race different and distinct
from the Aryans of the north. The term Aryan was taken up in Europe in the 20th century by the Nazis to designate a person of a
“superrace.”
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Aryan. This word is derived from the Sanskrit word arya (“noble”), which is used in the earliest Hindu sacred literature, the Ve¬
das, to describe a certain group of people that believed the Vedas were sacred. In the beginning this word simply designated “our
group” from “other people,” whom the Veda names Dasyus (“slaves”). These provide a description of the slaves as having flat
noses and curly hair. Throughout history Hindu writers have often described themselves as “Arya,” although it is important to note
that this need not be understood as a racial designation, since it could merely be intended to mean “noble.”
Who were these Aryans? Nineteenthcentury European philological research discovered structural relationships between Sanskrit
and classical European languages and speculated that all these languages came from a common parent. Based on further anal¬
ysis, these researchers hypothesized that people speaking this parent language originated in Central Asia, somewhere near the
Caspian Sea. From there, some went west to Europe, some went southwest to Turkey, and some went south toward Iran and later
to India. The conclusion that these Indian pilgrims came from Iran is based on comparisons between the Avesta and the Veda, the
Iranian and Indian religious texts. These texts show broad linguistic similarities and indicate that the people speaking the languag¬
es were closely related. This entire theory is thus based solely on the observed similarities between languages and on how they
changed.
For the nineteenth-century philologists, “Aryan” was a linguistic category used to designate people speaking certain languages
and involved no assumptions about the speakers’ racial identity. Despite this fact, the word quickly assumed a racial connotation
in European discourse, with terrible consequences.
The Aryan movement was once described as an “invasion,” but in recent years it has become more common to describe it as a
“migration.” According to the accounts in the Vedas, the Aryans were a pastoral people, and although some Vedic passages men¬
tion war chariots, the majority describe herds of cattle. Given this picture of nomads following their cattle to pasture, the image of
an invading army seems improbable.
The Aryan migration theory accounts for the dissemination of various languages but is not universally accepted. Many modern
Indians subscribe to the Indigenous Aryan (IA) theory, which maintains that the Aryans are the original inhabitants of India and as
proof points to the artifacts found in the Indus Valley civilization. Some of the people that believe the IA theory may be reacting
against the Aryan migration theory’s perceived colonialist bias, since the theory was developed by Europeans and assumes that
the dominant groups in modern India must have come from outside. Other supporters are the proponents of Hindutva, who claim
that all Indians are “really” Hindus and thus one social group, whatever their particular religious beliefs.
This assertion has profound political implications in modern India, where Christians and Muslims are not only religious communi¬
ties but social and political ones as well. By connecting Hindu identity with good Indian citizenship, Hindutva proponents are mar¬
ginalizing Christians and Muslims as outsiders.
In Sanskrit literature
General
Wikipedia
In Sanskrit and related Indie languages, Arya refers to one of high birth or caste. Although Aryas were concentrated in North India,
the title of Arya was used with various modifications throughout the Indian Subcontinent.
Vedic Sanskrit
The term Arya is used 36 times in 34 hymns in the Rigveda. While the word may ultimately derive from a tribal name, already in
the Rigveda it appears as a religious distinction, separating those who sacrifice “properly” from those who do not belong to the
historical Vedic religion, presaging the usage in later Hinduism where the term comes to denote religious righteousness or piety.
Sanskrit Epics
Arya and Anarya are primarily used in the moral sense in the Hindu Epics. People are usually called Arya or Anarya based on
their behaviour.
Mahabharata
In the Mahabharata, the terms Arya or Anarya are often applied to people according to their behaviour. Dushasana, who tried
to disrobe Draupadi in the Kaurava court, is called an “Anarya” (Mbh:0020600253). Vidura, the son of a Dasi born from Vyasa,
was the only person in the assembly whose behaviour is called “Arya”, because he was the only one who openly protested when
Draupadi was being disrobed by Dushasana. The Pandavas called themselves “Anarya” in the Mahabharata (0071670471) when
they killed Drona through deception.
According to the Mahabharata, a person’s behaviour (not wealth or learning) determines if he can be called an Arya [8].[9].Also
the whole Kuru clan was called as Arya .
Religious use
General
Wikipedia
The term arya is often found in Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain texts. In the Indian spiritual context it can be applied to Rishis or to
someone who has mastered the four noble truths and entered upon the spiritual path. The religions of India are sometimes called
collectively arya dharma, a term that includes the religions that originated in India (e.g. Hinduism (Sanatana Dharma), Buddhism,
Jainism, Sikhism).
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Spirituality in the religious context is permeated by the twin considerations of merit or demerit, saintly or sinful, the sacred and the
profane. In the context of Sanskritist religion the corresponding expressions are arya (good or honourable) and anarya (evil or
dishonourable). The racial implications may be said to have been completely effaced from these expressions as used at present.
An Aryan is known for gentlemanly qualities, whatever his race. Thus arya and anarya which we have translated as “sacred” and
“profane” refer to twin ambivalant aspects of personal spiritual life.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
arya - from the verb root r = “to rise upward”
Wikipedia
In its oldest recorded forms, Indo-lranian arya is an ethnonym, i.e. the name of the ethnic group of Indians and Iranians them¬
selves. More precisely, it is a self-referential adjective that - from the point of view of the Indians and Iranians themselves - effec¬
tively means “pertaining to ourselves.” Its antonym anarya- (Skt. anarya-, Av. anairiia-) effectively means “pertaining to the Other”.
These oldest forms are the Vedic Sanskrit arya-, used as an autonym of the various Rigvedic tribes taken together, and Iranian
arya- (with a short-a; Old Persian ariya, Avestan airiia) used as an autonym of the Iranian people. This significance of Indo-lranian
arya as an autonym is uncontested, and has been known to scholarship for centuries.
The word’s further etymology cannot be determined with any degree of certainty.
Sanskrit
Arya — 3TT*f
Asat
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Asat— ... “nonbeing”; nonexistence; false; the world of change; unmanifested
1. It is the basis of the universe, according to Advaita Vedanta. It is falsely real and really false. Sometimes it is said to be totally
nonexistent, as in the case of a square circle.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
asat -
not being, not existing, unreal;
untrue, wrong; bad;
non-existence, nonentity
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Asat. This word denotes a general category in Indian speculative thought and is often translated as “nonbeing.” It is the absolute
opposite of sat and is formed by the addition of the negative prefix. If sat is “that which (really and truly) exists,” then its opposite is
“that which does not exist.” Since the word sat also carries connotations of Truth—that things that exist are both “real” and “true”—
asat carries connotations of falseness.
Ramakrishna tradition
Vivekananda. Raja Yoga
Asat. Non-being or existence. Opposite of Sat. Applied to the changing existence of the universe.
Descriptions
Sivananda tradition
Krishnananda. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
That which appears to be real, and yet, is not real—that is the Asat. Asat does not mean non-existence, like the horns of a human
being. Here, the unreal is not of that category, because if a thing is totally non-existent, it will not be seen, and the question of ris¬
ing from it does not arise. The rise of the consciousness from one state to another becomes necessitated on account of there be¬
ing an element of the real reflected in the apparent. The world of unreality is capable of being taken for reality, and therefore one
gets involved in it. Certain characters of reality are visible in the world of unreality, and so there is a mix-up of two attributes. The
appearance, as we call it, is not a total non-existence. It is a confusion, a kind of muddled thinking. ... Our individualities, our bodily
personalities are immediately available examples of this confusion of thought, where the real and the unreal are mixed up, and we
drift from one condition to another on account of not being able to judge what is what in our own cases. We have feelings which
are combinations of two aspects—the real and the unreal, the Sat and the Asat. We have a confidence that we are existing. We
never feel that we are non-existent, not also that we are a moving flow, or we are apparent, or we are in a condition of process.
... Thus, the prayer is:—Asato ma sad gamaya: ‘Lead me from the unreal to the real, from the apparent to the Absolute, so that we
shall be steadfast in that which is free from entanglement in appearances—space, time, and causal relations.’
Related words
Opposite: Sat
Sanskrit _
Asat — 3TH(J
asat - srfffT
Ashrama
Variant spellings
ashrama
ashram
asrama
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Asrama — ... a halting place; stage of life; level; hermitage; “a place of striving” or ‘(a place of) nonwandering”; “a place that re¬
moves the fatigue (of worldliness)”
1. Some claim the word is derived from the verb root sram meaning “to become weary, tired, exhausted” plus the prefix a mean¬
ing “not.” Others claim the word is derived from the verb root sram meaning “to labor, toil, to exert oneself.” Thus the word means
either “a place which is free from weariness and exhaustion” or “a place where one exherts oneself, with an emphasis on religious
exertions.” There is a third possible interpretation which derives from the root sramana (meaning “to wander”) and thus, an asrama
is a “place of rest or peace.”
2. There are four stages (asrama) of life’s journey. They delineate the individual’s vertical ascent to liberation. These four are the
student stage (brahmacarya), the householder stage (grhastha), the forest dweller (vanaprastha), and the renunciant (sannyasa).
These emphasize the individual aspect of one’s personal development. They are stages of strife when selfishness is slowly but
steadily rooted out.
3. The abode of a guru or saint. A monastic place of retreat where spiritual seekers engage in spiritual practices and study sacred
teachings.
4. See varna.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
asrama -
a hermitage, the abode of ascetics, the cell of a hermit or of retired saints or sages;
a stage in the life of a Brahman (of which there are four corresponding to four different periods or conditions, viz. 1st, Brahmacarin,
‘student of the Veda’; 2nd, Griha-stha, ‘householder ‘; 3rd, Vanaprastha, ‘anchorite ‘; and 4th, Sarhnyasin, ‘abandoner of all world¬
ly concerns’, or sometimes Bhikshu, ‘religious beggar’;
in some places the law-givers mention only three such periods of religious life, the first being then omitted);
a hut built on festal occasions;
a college, school; a wood or thicket
Wikipedia
Traditionally, an ashram (Sanskrit/Hindi: 3TT3T14T) is a religious hermitage. Additionally, today the term ashram often denotes a locus
of Indian cultural activity such as yoga, music study or religious instruction, the moral equivalent of a studio or dojo.
An ashram would typically, but not always, be located far from human habitation, in forests or mountainous regions, amidst re¬
freshing natural surroundings conducive to spiritual instruction and meditation. The residents of an ashram regularly performed
spiritual and physical exercises, such as the various forms of Yoga. Other sacrifices and penances, such as Yajnas were also
performed. Many ashrams also served as Gurukuls or residential schools for children.
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Ashram : A place of retreat for peaceful cessation of duties or ritualistic activities, where those who have become sanyasis or
those who are initiates in such a path or way of life live in small self- sufficient communities, independent of the surrounding soci¬
ety, and with an universal outlook on life as members of an open world community. It may have been derived from A, prefix mean¬
ing up to the point of, and Shrama, effort, as Ashrams are places where all the preparatory stages to spiritual effort may be carried
out in peace and seclusion.
Nitya. Meditations on the self
Ashram - A spiritual commune very much like a monastery or convent.
Descriptions
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
The Sanskrit ashrama was a place for ascetics to perform austerities (practices of renouncing bodily and psychological comfort),
usually at a distance from and in isolation from the larger world (shram, means to exert oneself strongly). In later times the word
came to designate a place organized for spiritual practice, a refuge where devotees could pursue their paths. Most often the ash¬
ram would be under the tutelage and guidance of a particular guru or lineage of teachers. Isolation is no longer the determining
factor of an ashram, though many are still deliberately sited away from the hustle and bustle of everyday life.
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
Hindu tradition abounds with teachings based on the Four Elements. ... The Four Asramas, or stages and ways of life, are based
on the Elements. They are Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sannyasa. The first applies to the period of growth and
education. The second is the period of life as householder, as pater-and materfamilias. It is the emotional stage. The third pe¬
riod is that which pertains to the Element Fire, the mental plane. The Vanaprastha has traditionally “to live in the forest” and “to
nourish the sacrificial fires”. The forest is a symbol of the mental plane. It is “the wilderness”. The Fire has ultimately to become
“the sacrificial fire”. The last stage, Sannyasa, that of renunciation, is the spiritual stage of Air. In traditional teachings, there is an
intimate relationship between the symbolism, the rites, and the recommended way of life. The mental plane is symbolically “the
wilderness”, where “the wild beasts” of the urges and tendencies of the “animal-man” roam about. And it is actually true that the
best environment for the subjugation of those “wild beasts” is in the retreat of a forest, away from “the world”, where the mind is
sweetened and harmonized by consorting with actual wild animals. In the Tevijja Sutta the Buddha characterizes the philosophiz¬
ing of some learned Brahmans as a “waterless desert” and a “pathless jungle”. The terms are not used merely as vivid “figures of
speech” but constitute very exact symbols as the context signifies.
Wikipedia
Ashrams have been a powerful symbol throughout Hindu history and theology. Most Hindu kings, until the medieval ages, are
known to have had a sage who would advise the royal family in spiritual matters, or in times of crisis, who was called the rajguru,
which literally translates to royal teacher. A world- weary emperor going to this guru’s ashram, and finding solace and tranquility, is
a recurring motif in many folktales and legends of ancient India.
Sometimes, the goal of a Gita Pilgrimage to the ashram was not tranquility, but instruction in some art, especially warfare. In the
Hindu epic Ramayana, the protagonist princes of ancient Ayodhya, Rama and Laxman, go to the Rishi Vishvamitra’s ashram to
protect his Yajnas from being defiled by emissary- demons of Ravana. After they prove their mettle, the princes receive martial
instruction from the sage, especially in the use of enchanted weapons, called Divyastras (Sanskrit Divya: enchanted + Astra: mis¬
sile weapon; the Sanskrit word ‘astra’ means missile weapon, such as an arrow, as opposed to ‘shastra’, which means a hand-to-
hand weapon, such as a mace.) In the Mahabharata, Lord Krishna, in his youth, goes to the ashram of Sage Sandiipanii, to gain
knowledge of both intellectual and spiritual matters.
Sankara tradition
Sankara. Atmabodha, tr. Nikhilananda
The Hindu view of life, as conceived in the Vedas, is spiritual. It has a spiritual end designated as moksa, or Liberation. Material
enjoyments, which are necessary and legitimate at certain periods of life, should be so regulated that in the end they may lead
men to the attainment of the Highest Good. ... Nevertheless, in the lower stages of evolution the appetite for material things cannot
be ignored. If this appetite is suppressed or inhibited, an unhealthy condition is created affecting both man’s body and his mind.
The Hindu philosophers want us gradually to transform the inclinations of the senses, will, and mind, so that they may become
man’s helpers in the attainment of his spiritual end and not remain his enemies. The various divisions of individual and social life
as described in the Vedas and the Puranas bear out the ideal of man’s spiritual destiny.
Let us state briefly the four stages into which the ancient Hindus divided the lifetime of the individual. The first known as brah-
macarya, covered the period of the young man’s study. He was at that time called a brahmacari, a celibate student who lived with
his teacher, practising such disciplines as chastity, obedience, and austerity. He studied the Vedas and particularly participated
in sacrifices and ritualistic worship. He was taught orally. Living in a forest retreat away from the complexities of the city, he led a
very simple life, looking after the teacher’s cattle, chopping wood for his sacrificial fire, and spending a great part of the time close¬
ly observing Nature. It was a life of detachment and aloofness from the world. The pupil committed to memory the texts of the Ve¬
das. After completing his education, he took his leave and the teacher said to him: “Do not deviate from truth, do not deviate from
the daily recitation of the Vedas.”
During the second stage the youth embraced the householder’s life, known as garhasthya, and himself was called a grhastha. In
company with his wife he performed various sacrifices and rituals described in Samhita and Brahmana portions of the Vedas. As a
citizen he performed his civic duties according to his position in. the Hindu-caste system, as priest, military man, or trader.
But secular duties could not keep him bound to the world for ever. As a result of experience and observation he gradually be¬
came disillusioned about the glitter of the outer world. He longed for inner peace. As the signs of old age crept in, he entrusted his
worldly duties to his children and retired into the forest (aranya) with his wife. He entered upon the vanaprastha stage and became
known as a vanaprasthi, or forest-dweller. He was still, in the technical sense of the term, a householder and, as such, had to
perform certain daily sacrifices obligatory for all but the monks. But as it was not possible for him to procure in the forest all the
ingredients for such sacrifices, the Vedas laid down for him symbolic worship. He meditated on the symbolic meaning of the vari¬
ous phases of a sacrifice and thus reaped the fruit of its actual performance. To give an illustration: The Vedas enjoined upon all
householders the daily performance of the Agnihotra sacrifice, which required several material ingredients. But the forest-dweller
meditated on the various functions of the prana, or life-breath, and regarded these as spiritual counterparts of the different ingredi¬
ents...
The last stage of the lifetime of the individual, known as sannyasa, or monastic life, was entered into by those forest-dwellers who
totally gave up the world in search of Truth and Freedom. They then became bhiksus, wandering monks, or sannyasis-world-re-
nouncers. The realization of the Supreme Truth has been described as the “flight of the Alone to the Alone”. The last stage of life
is to be walked singly. Relinquishing all longing for material happiness both here and hereafter, as well as the desire for self-grati¬
fication through progeny, wealth, or heavenly bliss after death, these monks practised total renunciation, both inner and outer. As
the ultimate ascent is steep and the lofty air extremely rarefied, they not only left behind material possessions but also stripped
themselves of ego and desires. ... They were outside all castes and beyond all social conventions. They gave up the sacrifices
and ritualistic worship prescribed for the other three stages. They lived a life of freedom, which they had earned through strict
observance of religious and moral laws. They were the spiritual teachers of men and were shining examples of peace and detach¬
ment. But by no means is a sannyasi a selfish person. His life is dedicated to the service of all, irrespective of caste or creed.
The sannyasis studied the Upanishads, the concluding parts of the Vedas, which describe the Knowledge of Brahman, or the
Absolute, and the disciplines for Its attainment. By the spiritually-minded Hindus they were naturally held in the highest esteem for
their purity, detachment, unselfishness’ and utter devotion to Truth. As the burning tip of the wick shows that a lamp is ablaze, so,
likewise, the presence of these free souls at the top of Hindu society demonstrated that its social life was functioning well. Though
in general the life of the Indo-Aryans in ancient India followed this pattern and the monastic life was the natural culmination of the
three previous stages, yet an aspirant for Truth might become a monk at any stage. An injunction of the Vedas declares: “The day
a man is seized with a spirit of dispassion he should forthwith renounce the world.” The Vedas speak of young men and women
who took the vow of renunciation without going through the stages of the householder’s and the forestdweller’s life.
A brahmachari had to read all the Vedas, though the Samhitas really moulded his life. Likewise, the householders followed the
injunctions of the Brahmanas, the forest-dwellers those of the Aranyakas, and the monks those of the Upanishads.
See also:
in Vairagya: Hiriyanna. Outlines of Indian philosophy
Related words
Brahmacarya
Grihastha
Matha
Sannyasa
Vanaprastha
Sanskrit
Asrama — 3TTW
asrama -
Ashtavakra Gita
Title
Ashtavakra Gita
mi Mill'd I
astavakragTta
Ashtavakra Samhita
Descriptions
Ashtavakra Gita is a Sanskrit work on Advaita-Vedanta from the time of the younger Upanishads, it is a dialogue between Ashta¬
vakra and his disciple Janaka.
General
Wikipedia
Ashtavakra Gita presents the traditional teachings of Advaita Vedanta with a clarity and power very rarely matched. The work was
known, appreciated and quoted by Ramakrishna and his disciple Vivekananda, as well as by Ramana Maharshi, Osho and Sri Sri
Ravi Shankar. Radhakrishnan refers to it with great respect.
The Ashtavakra Gita or the Song of Ashtavakra is an Advaita Vedanta scripture which documents a dialogue between the Perfect
Master Ashtavakra and Janaka, the King of Mithila.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Integrated Science of the Absolute
... Others like Sankara, as we have seen in his Vivekachudamani condemn outright practices like pranayama as not conducive
to the attainment of the Absolute. He stands for pure wisdom-understanding as the only means for the attainment of the ends of
spirituality and gives his favourite example of how cooking would be impossible without fire. Superior and contemplative texts such
as the Ashtavakra Gita , said to be held in high esteem by Ramakrishna Paramahamsa, the Guru of Swami Vivekananda, tend to
dismiss the duality between ends and means in spirituality and say that no kind of intense or austere regime or practice is neces¬
sary.
Authors
Ashta means ‘eight’ and vakra means ‘bends’. Ashtavakra was so named
because his body had eight deformities.
General
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Ashtavakra - (“eight bends”) In the Mahabharata, the later of the two great Hindu epics, Ashtavakra is a sage who is the son of
Khagodara. According to tradition, Ashtavakra is an exceptionally precocious child, and this gets him into serious trouble. While he
is still in his mother’s womb, Ashtavakra corrects his father’s pronunciation of a certain mantra. In response his father curses him
to be bent, and when the child is born he has eight bends in his body.
Despite his unusual appearance, Ashtavakra becomes a learned sage and is widely believed to be the author of the Ashtavakragi-
ta (“Song of Ashtavakra”).
Wilson. The Vishnu Purana
The story of Ashtavakra is related in the Mahabharata.il He was the son of Kahoda, who, neglecting his wife, was rebuked for it
by his yet unborn son. The father angrily cursed him, that he should be born bent in every part; and he was, accordingly, brought
forth crooked (vakra) in eight limbs (ashtan). He became, nevertheless, a celebrated sage.
Synopsis
Raja Janaka ruled over the country of Videha. Once he had a dream in which a rival king with a large army had invaded his coun¬
try. He was driven out of his palace barefooted and without any clothes covering him. Thirsty and hungry, Janaka was roaming
about in a jungle. He reached a small town where he begged for food. With great difficulty he obtained some rice water. Janaka
took it with intense joy and just as he put it to his lips, two large bulls tumbled fighting over him. The bowl was broken to pieces.
Janaka woke up with great fear.
He was trembling violently. He he could not understand, which of his two states was real. All the time he was in dream, he never
thought that it was an illusion.
His only thought now was, “Which is real, this or that?” From that time he left all his work and became silent. He uttered nothing
but the above words.
His ministers announced that anyone who cured the Raja will be richly rewarded and those who fail to cure the Raja will be put to
prison for life. Hundreds of Brahmins well versed in the science of curing diseases were put in the state prison.
Among the prisoners was also the father of the great sage Ashtavakra. When Ashtavakra was a boy of only ten years of age, he
was told by his mother that his father was a state prisoner because he failed to cure Raja Janaka. He at once started to see Jana-
ka and offered his answer to the Raja, he whispered into the ear of Janaka, “Neither this nor that is real.” Raja Janaka at once
became joyful. His confusion was removed.
Raja Janaka then asked Ashtavakra, “What is real?” A long dialogue ensued between him and the sage. This is recorded in
Ashtavakra Gita.
Publications
Translations
Ashtavakra Gita (Archival Special Edition). Tr. by Swami Nityaswarupananda. 2001, 1st Ed. PB , Size H, 298 pp.,1037; 81-88018-
57-0
Teachings imparted by the Sage Ashtavakra to King Janaka. The facsimile edition is a copy of the book presented to Bhagavan by
the Maharaja of Mysore in 1932. It contains Bhagavan’s handwriting of the Sanskrit text, Kannada text and English translation.
Atharva Veda
Title
Atharva Veda — 3T*icJclq
Sanscrit: srspypfc
Atharva Veda
Atharvaveda
Atharvangirasa
Author(s)
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Atharva Veda — ... wisdom of (the sage) Atharva, one of the four Vedas.
Wikipedia
According to tradition, the Atharvaveda was mainly composed by two groups of rishis known as the Atharvanas and the Angirasa,
hence its oldest name is Atharvangirasa. In the Late Vedic Gopatha Brahmana, it is attributed to the Bhrigu and Angirasa. Addi¬
tionally, tradition ascribes parts to other rishis, such as Kausika, Vasistha and Kasyapa.
See also:
in Veda: Author(s)
Descriptions
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
The Atharva Veda became part of the greater tradition somewhat later. It consists primarily of spells and charms used to ward off
diseases or influence events. This text is considered the source document for Indian medicine (AYURVEDA). It also contains a
number of cosmogonic hymns that show the development of the notion of divine unity in the tradition. A priest of the Atharva Veda
was later included in all public rituals. From that time tradition spoke of four Vedas rather than three.
Dasgupta. A history of Indian philosophy
The fourth collection, the Atharva-Veda, probably attained its present form considerably later than the Rg-Veda. In spirit, howev¬
er, as Professor Macdonell says, “It is not only entirely different from the Rigveda but represents a much more primitive stage of
thought. While the Rigveda deals almost exclusively with the higher gods as conceived by a comparatively advanced and refined
sacerdotal class, the Atharva-Veda is, in the main a book of spells and incantations appealing to the demon world, and teems with
notions about witchcraft current among the lower grades of the population, and derived from an immemorial antiquity. These two,
thus complementary to each other in contents are obviously the most important of the four Vedas.”
Wikipedia
The Atharvaveda is a sacred text of Hinduism, and one of the four Vedas, often called the “fourth Veda”.
It is clear that the core text of the Atharvaveda is not particularly recent in the Vedic Samhita tradition, and falls within the classical
Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit at the end of 2nd millennium BCE - roughly contemporary with the Yajurveda mantras, the Rigve-
dic Khilani, and the Samaveda.
The Atharvaveda is also the first Indie text to mention Iron (as syama ayas, literally “black metal”), so that scholarly consensus
dates the bulk of the Atharvaveda hymns to the early Indian Iron Age, corresponding to the 12th to 10th centuries BC or the early
Kuru kingdom.
During its oral tradition, however, the text has been corrupted considerably more than some other Vedas, and it is only from com¬
parative philology of the two surviving recensions that we may hope to arrive at an approximation of the original reading.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Brhadaranyaka Upanisad
Atharva Veda, which is often treated as a heretical Veda, not respectable enough to be counted along with the other three Vedas,
has appended to it the cream of the Upanisads, which give the substance of Advaita Vedanta. They are thirty one in number, the
most significant are: Prasna, Mundaka and Mandukya. In the Madhu Brahmana of the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad itself, there is an
attempt to cover up the identity of Atharvan to whom the Atharva Veda is attributed.
Relations of Vedas to their objects, four elements, etc.
Diagram: Summary of Vedic literature
Synopsis
General
Wikipedia
The Shaunakiya text is clearly divided into four parts: Kandas 1-7 deal with healing and general black and white magic that is to
be applied in all situations of life, from the first tooth of a baby to regaining kingship. Kandas 8-12 constitute early speculation on
the nature of the universe and of humans as well as on ritual, and are thus predecessors of the Upanishads. They continue the
speculative tradition of some Rigvedic poets. Kandas 13-18 deal with issues of a householder’s life, such as marriage, death and
female rivalry, as well as with the ambiguous Vratyas on the fringes of society and with the Rohita sun as an embodiment of roy¬
al power. Kandas 19 is an addition and Kanda 20 is a very late addition containing Rgvedic hymns for the use of the Atharvanic
Brahmanacchamsin priest as well as for the enigmatic Kuntapa ritual of the Kuru kingdom of Parikshit. The Paippalada text has a
similar arrangement into four parts (Kandas 1-15, 16-17, 18, 19-20) with roughly the same contents.
The AV is the first Indie text dealing with medicine. It identifies the causes of disease as living causative agents such as the yatud-
hana, the kimldin, the krimi or krmi and the durnama. The Atharvans seek to kill them with a variety of incantations or plant based
drugs in order to counter the disease (see XIX.34.9). This approach to disease is quite different compared to the trihumoral theory
of Ayurveda.
The Atharvaveda also informs about warfare. A variety of devices such as an arrow with a duct for poison (apaskambha) and
castor bean poison, poisoned net and hook traps, use of disease spreading insects and smoke screens find a place in the Athar¬
vaveda samhita (eg. hymns IX .9, IX.10, the trisamdi and nyarbudi hymns). These references to military practices and associated
Ksatriya rites were what gave the Atharvaveda its reputation.
Several regular and special rituals of the Aryans are a major concern of the Atharvaveda, just as in the three other Vedas. The
major rituals covered by the AV are marriage in kamda - XIV and the funeral in kamda - XVIII. There are also hymns that are spe¬
cific to rituals of the bhrgu- angirasas, vratyas and ksatriyas. One peculiar rite is the Visasahi Vrata, performed with the mantras of
the XVII kamda in a spell against female rivals. ... Finally, there are some rituals aimed at the destruction of the enemies (Abhicari-
ka hymns and rites), particularly found in chapters 1-7. While these support traditional negative views on the AV, in content they
are mirrored by several other hymns from the Rig as well as the Yajuses. Moreover, Abhicarika rites were an integral part of Vedic
culture, as is amply attested in the brahmana literature. Thus the Atharvaveda is fully within the classic Vedic fold, though it was
more specific to certain Brahman clans of priests...
Philosophical excursions are found in books 8-12. One of the most spectacular expressions of philosophical thought is seen in the
hymn XII.I, the Hymn to goddess Earth or the PrthivT Sukta used in the Agrayana rite. The foundations of Vaisesika Darsana is ex¬
pressed in the mantra XII.1.26 in which the ‘atoms’ (Pamsu) are described forming the stone, the stones agglutinating to form the
rocks and the rocks held together to form the Earth. Early pantheistic thought is seen in the hymn X.7 that describes the common
thread running through all manifest and non- manifest existence as the skambha. ...The hymn also describes a pantheistic nature
of the Vedic gods (X.7.38): skambha is the heat (tapah) that spreads through the universe (Bhuvana) as waves of water; the units
of this spreading entity are the gods even as branches of one tree. This theme is repeatedly presented in various interpretations
in later Hindu philosophies.
Publications
Translations
The Shaunakiya text. Translations into English were made by Ralph Griffith (2 vols, Benares 1897), D. Whitney (revised by Lan-
man, 2 vols, Cambridge, Mass. 1905), and M. Bloomfield (SBE Vol XLII); also see Bloomfield, “The Atharvaveda” in “Grundriss
der Indoarischen Philologie”, II (Strasburg, 1899).
The Paippalada text. Book 2 was edited and translated by Thomas Zehnder (1999) and book 5 by Alexander Lubotsky (2002), and
books 6-7 by Arlo Griffiths (2004).
Bloomfield, Maurice, trans. and ed. Hymns of the Atharva-Veda. Delhi, 1964. Reprint of “Sacred Books of the East,” vol. 42 (Ox¬
ford, 1897). Translations and interpretations of the most important incantations and hymns of the fourth Veda from ancient India by
one of the outstanding American Sanskritists of the nineteenth century.
Related words
Mahavakya: Ayamatma- Brahma
Mandukya Upanishad
Mundaka Upanishad
Prashna Upanishad
Veda
Atman
Variant spellings
atma
atman
atman
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Atman —... the inner Self
1. The Reality which is the substrate of the individual and identical with the Absolute (Brahman), according to Advaita Vedanta.
It cannot be doubted, for it is the basis of all experience. It cannot be known by thought, as the knower cannot be the known. Yet
there is no experience without it. It is the basis of all proofs, yet cannot be proved itself, though it can be experienced.
2. Nyaya and Vaisesika call it the substratum in which cognition inheres. It is of two kinds: supreme Soul and individual soul. It is
a substance which is revealed in one’s inner perceptual experience arising through the inner sense of mind, independently of the
external senses.
3. Sankhya and Yoga define it as an unrelated, attributeless, self-luminous, omnipresent entity which is identical with conscious¬
ness.
4. The Upanisads say that it denotes the ultimate essence of the universe as well as the vital breath in human beings.
5. It is the unseen basis which is the reality within the five sheaths. It is the spark of the Divine within. It is the reality behind the ap¬
pearance, and universal and immanent in every entity. It is not bom nor does it die. It is imperishable, according to the Upanisads.
6. In the Indian philosophical systems, the Self is said to be of one of three sizes: Dvaita Vedanta and Visistadvaita Vedanta call
it atomic (anu-parimana); Advaita Vedanta and Sankhya call it all-pervasive (vibhuparimana); Jainism calls it neither atomic nor
all-pervasive but of medium size (madhyama-parimana).
7. Buddhism denies any reality to the Self altogether. (See anatman.)
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
atman -
the breath;
the soul, principle of life and sensation;
the individual soul, self, abstract individual;
essence, nature, character, peculiarity;
the person or whole body considered as one and opposed to the separate members of the body;
the body;
the understanding, intellect, mind;
the highest personal principle of life, Brahma;
effort;
firmness;
the sun;
fire;
a son
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
The atman is the self or soul. The word is derived either from the root at (to move) or the root an (to breathe). It is used both for
the individual self or soul and for the transcendent “Self” or “All- soul,” which is all reality. Often the individual self is referred to as
the jivatman, “the life self,” and the transcendent Self is referred to as the paramatman, or “Ultimate Self.”
Deussen. Outlines of Indian Philosophy
... Atman, which properly is the exact equivalent of the english “Self”. Thus Atman means that which remains if we take away from
our person all that is Non-self, foreign, all that comes and passes away; it means “the changeless, inseparable essence of our
own Self”, and on the other hand the essence of the Self of the whole world.
Wikipedia
The Atman is a philosophical term used within Hinduism and Vedanta to identify the soul. It is one’s true self (hence generally
translated into English as ‘Self’) beyond identification with the phenomenal reality of worldly existence.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Atma (Atman): The self (from the root “at”, meaning “to prevade”). The invisible reality or stuff that prevades any visible form. Often
confused with jiva, the soul. Used in slightly altered senses according to the context. The simplest meaning of the word is “I” or
“oneself”.
Descriptions
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
The Upanishads and Vedanta philosophy focus on realizing the unity between the individual self and the ultimate Self, by means
of various practices. When one realizes (not just intellectually knows) the unity of individual self and Ultimate Self, one breaks the
bonds of KARMA and escapes from further rebirth.
Some sort of meditation or contemplation is always necessary to realize the unity of Ultimate Self and individual self. Some Indian
paths emphasize “knowledge,” or transcendental realization; some paths emphasize devotion; some look to combine devotion and
action, or knowledge, action, and devotion, to reach this final goal. Though ADVAITA (non-dual) Vedanta emphasizes a total iden¬
tity between the individual atman and the large atman, other Indian traditions understand that there are an infinite number of totally
distinct individual selves or atmans that never merge into each other at the highest level. VAISHNAVISM generally holds this view,
as does SHAIVA SIDDHANTA.
Muller. The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy
... The next word we have to examine is Atman. It is next in importance to Brahman only, and the two together may be called the
two pillars on which rests nearly the whole of the edifice of Indian philosophy, more particularly of the Vedanta and Samkhya sys¬
tems.
... Whenever we come across such words as Atman and Brahman we suspect Vedantic influences, whereas Purusha and PrakHti
at once remind us of Sawkhya doctrines. But Atman is by no means unknown to early Samkhya philosophers, nor is Purusha en¬
tirely outside the Vedantic horizon.
... All these [Upadhis, i.e. the Manas, the central organ of perception, the Indriyas, the five senses, etc.] are not the Atman, and it
is only through Avidya that the Atman has become identified with them.
... That there is in man something that can be called Atman or Self requires no proof, but if a proof were wanted it would be found
in the fact that no one can say, ‘ I am not ‘ (I being the disguised Atman), for he who would say so, would himself be not, or would
not be. The question then is What is really I or what is there real behind the I. It cannot be the body as influenced by our objective
environment, for that body is perishable ; it cannot be the Indriyas or the Manas or the Mukhyaprima, for all these have a begin¬
ning, a growth, and therefore an end. All these, called the Upadhis, conditions, are to be treated as Not-self; arid if it be asked why
they should ever have been treated as Self, the only possible answer is that it was through Nescience or Avidya, but through a
Nescience that is not only casual or individual, but universal. What in our common language we call the Ego or Ahamkara is but a
product of the Manas and quite as unsubstantial in reality as the Manas itself, the senses and the whole body.
Wikipedia
Philosophical schools such as Advaita (monism) see the soul within each living entity as being fully identical with Brahman - the
all- pervading soul of the universe, whereas other schools such as Dvaita (dualism) differentiate between the individual atma in
living beings, and the Supreme atma (Paramatma) as being at least partially separate beings. Thus atman refers to the individual
soul or the observer.
Within Advaita Vedanta philosophy the Atman is the universal life- principle, the animator of all organisms, and the world- soul.
This view is of a sort of panentheism (not pantheism) and thus is sometimes not equated with the single creator God of monothe¬
ism. Identification of individual living beings/souls, or jiva- atmas, with the ‘One Atman’ is the monistic Advaita Vedanta position,
which is critiqued by dualistic/theistic Dvaita Vedanta. Dvaita Vedanta calls the all-pervading aspect of Brahman Paramatman
quantitatively different from individual Atman and claims reality for both a God functioning as the ultimate metaphorical “soul” of
the universe, and for actual individual “souls” as such. The Dvaita, dualist schools, therefore, in contrast to Advaita, advocate an
exclusive monotheistic position wherein Brahman is made synonymous with Vishnu. Aspects of both philosophies are found within
the schools of Vishishtadvaita Vedanta and Achintya Bheda Abheda.
In some instances both Advaita and Dvaita schools may accommodate the others’s belief as a lower form of worship or practice
towards the same ultimate goal.
In the view of the Yoga school, the highest attainment does not reveal the experienced diversity of the world to be illusion. The
everyday world is real. Furthermore, the highest attainment is the event of one of many individual selves discovering itself; there is
no single universal self shared by all persons.
The pre-Buddhist Upanishads link the Self to the feeling “I am.” Others like the post- Buddhist Maitri Upanishad hold that only the
defiled individual self, rather than the universal self, thinks “this is I” or “this is mine”.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Every experience, we know, involves the three basic factors called triputi. The Reality, seen from that point of view,is the one that
manifests itself as the knower, the known and the act of knowing at the same time.
Every act of knowing takes place in and is inseparable from the knower. The knower, in his turn, is an integral partof the known
world. Knowing really what Reality is, therefore, in essence, is the event of the knower finding himself merged with the known,
through the act of knowing, with no distinction remaining finally among the three.
This Reality, in Vedanta, is known as atma or atman. A word derived from the verb root at, meaning to pervade the being of some¬
thing (ad vyapane), it signifies the Substance that pervades the being of all that has come into being. One such being is the know¬
er himself. Therefore, the word atma denotes the self or oneself as well. Its best English equivalant is “the self.”
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
You won’t find the eternal by meditating on the body or the mind or any of the senses or sensory pleasures that disappear after a
while.
One should turn to the pure awareness that was present even when one was in the mother’s womb as a fertilized ovum, a devel¬
oping fetus, and as a child who was pushing itself out through a strange kind of interaction between itself and the mother, finally to
come to its own liberation. All these things are done by another awareness residing within. It is the same in the mother, the child,
the father, and all the living beings all over the universe. It is a common life principle, a homogeneous principle of life, which can
remain dormant, come into a form of manifestation, and assert itself in all shades of awareness, yet it is never itself affected. It is
immortal; it never dies. It is called the atman.
To meditate on it, the ancient wise ones made a formula, ayam atma brahma. It means, this atma is brahman; this self-luminous
awareness that resides in all beings is the Absolute. That which is other than that which lies between the skin and all the oth¬
er urges, it never perishes. When we contemplate this, when we meditate on it continuously, there comes the perfection of that
awareness.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
A sannyasi asked: It is said that the Self is beyond the mind and yet the realisation is with the mind. Mano na manute, Manasa na
matam, and Manasaivedamaptavyam (The mind cannot think it. It cannot be thought of by the mind and the mind alone can real¬
ise it). How are these contradictions to be reconciled?
M.: Atman is realised with mruta manas (dead mind), i.e., mind devoid of thoughts and turned inward. Then the mind sees its own
source and becomes That. It is not as the subject perceiving an object.
When the room is dark a lamp is necessary to illumine and eyes to cognise objects. But when the sun is risen there is no need of
a lamp, and the objects are seen; and to see the sun no lamp is necessary, it is enough that you turn your eyes towards the selflu-
minous sun.
Similarly with the mind. To see the objects the reflected light of the mind is necessary. To see the Heart it is enough that the mind
is turned towards it. Then the mind loses itself and the Heart shines forth.
... Mouna [silence] is said to be that state which spontaneously manifests after the annihilation of the ego. That state is beyond
light and darkness, but still it is called light since no other proper word could be found for it.
Ramakrishna tradition
Vivekananda. Jnana Yoga
The different philosophies seem to agree that this Atman, whatever it be, has neither form nor shape, and that which has neither
form nor shape must be omnipresent. Time begins with mind, space also is in the mind. Causation cannot stand without time.
Without the idea of succession there cannot be any idea of causation. Time, space, and causation, therefore, are in the mind, and
as this Atman is beyond the mind and formless it must be beyond time, beyond space, and beyond causation. Now if it is beyond
time, space and causation, it must be infinite. Then comes the highest speculation in our philosophy. The infinite cannot be two.
If the soul be infinite there can be only one soul, and all these ideas of various souls you having one soul, and I having another,
and so forth are not real. The real man therefore is one and infinite, the omnipresent spirit. And the apparent man is only a limita¬
tion of that real man. In that sense all these mythologies are true, that the apparent man, however great he may be, is only a dim
reflection of the real man which is beyond. The real man, the spirit, being beyond cause and effect, not bound by time and space,
must therefore be free. He was never bound, and could not be bound. The apparent man, the reflec tion, is limited by time, space
and causation, and he is therefore bound. Or in the language of some of our philosophers, he appears to be bound, but really is
not. This is the reality in our souls, this omni presence, this spiritual nature, this infinity, which we are already. Every soul is infinite,
therefore there is no question of birth and death.
Atma and anatma
Nataraja. The Philosophy of a Guru
The Self and the non-Self can be treated as dialectical counterparts and both placed in one unitive context of the Absolute. ...
In Vedanta it is normal to speak of atma (Self) and anatma (non-Self) as pratiyogis (counterparts) with an intimate bipolar relation
(samavaya) between them, and not merely a contiguous relationship (samyoga). ..
The non-Self can be thought of in a more work-a-day sense as fitting into a horizontal world of practical values, while the purer
Self with its dialectical counterparts, one ontological here, and the other of a teleological or transcendental order elsewhere in the
beyond, above or the ultimate or infinity, referring to vertical value worlds, could represent all values possible for the Self to be
affiliated to in contemplative life. We have already explained and justified the use of these references in previous studies.
The Self can be thought of as a big fish swimming in midstream in the direction of the current, alternately avoiding the two banks,
if we may take an analogy dear the the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The two banks will represent its limits in the horizontal axis of
reference while itself and its almost motionless motion would represent the Self, whether thought of as a sphere, elipse or the trac-
tix that mathematicians like Lobachewsky have sugested for the structure of space tensorially undersood and independent of size.
The Upanishads often speak of a person, of the size of the thumb and entered into the cavity of the heart, who has his counterpart
in the Sun. There is a subtle dialectical equation of these into the unitive terms of thesis, antithesis and synthesis. The Self and
non-Self have to be fitted into a schematic structure before what we should understand as the purpose of all scriptures such as the
Upanishads can be fulfilled or justified.
Atman and manas
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
Talk 99.
A sannyasi asked: It is said that the Self is beyond the mind and yet the realisation is with the mind. Mano na manute, Manasa na
matam, and Manasaivedamaptavyam (The mind cannot think it. It cannot be thought of by the mind and the mind alone can real¬
ise it). How are these contradictions to be reconciled?
M.: Atman is realised with mruta manas (dead mind), i.e., mind devoid of thoughts and turned inward. Then the mind sees its own
source and becomes That. It is not as the subject perceiving an object. When the room is dark a lamp is necessary to illumine and
eyes to cognise objects. But when the sun is risen there is no need of a lamp, and the objects are seen; and to see the sun no
lamp is necessary, it is enough that you turn your eyes towards the selfluminous sun.
Similarly with the mind. To see the objects the reflected light of the mind is necessary. To see the Heart it is enough that the mind
is turned towards it. Then the mind loses itself and the Heart shines forth.
Bhuta and atma
See: Brahman and atman
See: Cit, atman, brahman
See: Ishvara, atman, guru
See: Karma, prakriti, atman
See: Maya and atman
See: Prajapati, brahman, atman
See: Saccidananda and atman
Etymology
General
Deussen. Outlines of Indian Philosophy
It is not possible, as in the case of Prajapati and Brahman, to frame a history of the word Atman. It has no regular development but
we see it emerge here and there in proportion as the thinker seeks and finds a more clear-cut expression for the word Brahman to
name that being which can never by any means be taken away from us, and therefore forms the only true essence of our nature,
our atman, our Self. With this word we have reached the sphere of the Upanishads.
Dictionary - Grimes
atma — “breath” (from the verb root at = “to breathe”) or (from the verb root ap - “to pervade, reach up to”)
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
atman - variously derived fr. an, to breathe; at, to move; va, to blow
Muller. The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy
The etymology of Atman is again extremely obscure, probably because it belongs to a pre- Sanskritic, though Aryan stratum of
Indian speech. However, there can be little doubt that in the Veda Atman, in several places, still means breath ... It then came to
mean vital breath, life, and, like the spirit or breath, was frequently used in the sense of what we call soul. In some passages it
is difficult to say whether we should translate it by life or by spirit. From soul there is but a small step to Self... in other passages
Atman signifies simply the inmost nature of anything, and more particularly of man, so that in the end it means much the same as
what medieval philosophers would have called the quiddity, or Indian philosophers the ldant& of things ... In this sense Atman is
afterwards used as the name of the highest person, the soul of the world (Paramatman), ... the sovereign of all beings, he is the
king of all beings.
Wikipedia
The word atman is connected with the Indo- European root *et-men (breath) and is cognate with Old English “ae|3m”, Greek “asth¬
ma”, and German “Atem” : “atmen” (to breathe).
Related words
Brahman
Cit
Jiva
Jivatman
Maya
Paramatman
Saccidananda
Saksin
Sanskrit
atnflR — atma
/
atman - WdHH
Muller. The Upanishads, Part 1: When Atman occurs in philosophical treatises, such as the Upanishads and the Vedanta system
which is based on them, it has generally been translated by soul, mind, or spirit. I tried myself to use one or other of these words, but
the oftener I employed them, the more I felt their inadequacy, and was driven at last to adopt self and Self as the least liable to misun¬
derstanding.
... If we translate Atman by soul, mind, or spirit, we commit, first of all, that fundamental mistake of using words which may be
predicated, in place of a word which is a subject only, and can never become a predicate. We may say in English that man pos¬
sesses a soul, that a man is out of his mind, that man has or even that man is a spirit, but we could never predicate Atman, or self,
of anything else. Spirit, if it means breath or life; mind, if it means the organ of perception and conception; soul, if, like kaitanya,
it means intelligence in general, all these may be predicated of the Atman, as manifested in the phenomenal world. But they are
never subjects in the sense in which the Atman is; they have no independent being, apart from Atman. Thus to translate the begin¬
ning of the Aitareya- upanishad, Atma va idam eka evagra asTt, by This (world) verily was before (the creation of the world) soul
alone’ (Roer); or, ‘Originally this (universe) was indeed soul only’ (Colebrooke), would give us a totally false idea. M. Regnaud in
his ‘Materiaux pour servir a I’histoire de la philosophie de I’lnde’ (vol. ii, p. 24) has evidently felt this, and has kept the word Atman
untranslated, ‘Au commencement cet univers n’etait que I’atman.’ But while in French it would seem impossible to find any equiva¬
lent for atman, I have ventured to translate in English, as I should have done in German, ‘Verily, in the beginning all this was Self,
one only.’
Atma vidya
Variant spellings
atma-vidya
atmavidya
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Atma-vidya — ... “knowledge of the Self
1. Realization of the reality of the Self.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
atmavidya -
knowledge of soul or the supreme spirit
Descriptions
General
Muller. The Upanishads, Part 1
... when we read in Sanskrit, ‘Know the Self by the self,’ atmanam atmana pasya, tempting as it may seem, it would be entirely
wrong to render it by the Greek yvd)0i oeciutov. The Brahman called upon his young pupil to know not himself, but his Self, that is,
to know his individual self as a merely temporary reflex of the Eternal Self. Were we to translate this so-called atmavidya, this self-
knowledge, by knowledge of the soul, we should not be altogether wrong, but we should nevertheless lose all that distinguishes
Indian from Greek thought. It may not be good English to say to know his self, still less to know our seifs, but it would be bad San¬
skrit to say to know himself, to know ourselves; or, at all events, such a rendering would deprive us of the greatest advantage in
the study of Indian philosophy, the opportunity of seeing in how many different ways man has tried to solve the riddles of the world
and of his soul.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
Talk 379.
One Tirumalpad of Nilambur, a Malayali gentleman, asked Sri Bhagavan for an explanation of Atma Vidya. (Knowledge of the
Self.)
M.: Sri Bhagavan explained this short piece of 5 stanzas as follows: Chidambaram is the famous place of pilgrimage associated
with Nandanar who sang that Atma Vidya is most difficult of attainment. Muruganar (a long-standing devotee of Sri Bhagavan)
began however that Atma Vidya is the easiest of attainments. Ayye atisulabham is the burden of the song.
In explanation of this extraordinary statement, he argued that Atma being the Self is eternally obvious even to the least of men.
The original statement and the subsequent reasoning are incompatible because there need be no attainment if the Self is the sub¬
stratum of all selves and so obvious too. Naturally he could not pursue the theme further and laid the first four lines composed by
him before Sri Bhagavan for completion.
Sri Bhagavan admitted the truth of the disciple’s statement and pointed out why the Self, though obvious, is yet hidden. It is the
wrong identity of the Self with the body, etc.
D.: How did the wrong identity arise?
M.: Due to thoughts. If these thoughts are put an end to, the real Self should shine forth of itself.
D.: How are these thoughts to be ended?
M.: Find out their basis. All of them are strung on the single ‘l-thought’. Quell it; all others are quashed. Moreover there is no use
knowing all except the Self. If the Self is known all others become known. Hence is Self-Realisation the primary and sole duty of
man.
D.: How to quell the ‘l-thought’?
M.: If its source is sought it does not arise, and thus it is quelled.
D.: Where and how to find it?
M.: It is in fact the consciousness which enables the individuals to function in different ways. Pure Consciousness is the Self. All
that is required to realise the Self is to “Be Still.”
D.: What can be easier than that?
M.: So Atma Vidya is the easiest of attainment.
Related words
Brahmavidya
Sanskrit
Atma-vidya — aiicnfcifli
atmavidya -
AUM
See: OM
Avarana
Variant spellings
avarana
avarana
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Avarana — ... concealment; veil; screen; obstruction
1. The veiling power of ignorance. According to Advaita Vedanta, one of the twofold powers of ignorance (avidya).
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
avarana -
covering, hiding, concealing;
the act of covering, concealing, hiding;
shutting, enclosing;
an obstruction, interruption;
a covering, garment, cloth;
anything that protects, an outer bar or fence;
a wall;
a shield;
a bolt, lock
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Avarana: Anything which veils the vision or reality, as in the case of a thin cloth or smokescreen. A subtle and general state of ig¬
norance is suggested, also a lazy or negative state of mind, as in the case of a cow frightened by a red cloth. Degrees of Avarana
can be imagined, and the philosopher has to have a vision cleared of this smoke.
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Avarana: A veil. Atman manifesting itself as the world results in not seeing atma as real, but in seeing the manifestations as real.
It is as if atma, because of its own maya, puts a veil on itself resulting in seeing the unreal as real. This veiling power of maya is
called avarana.
Descriptions
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
When we see an ornament, it is as if the gold recedes from our view. Of course the jeweller sees all ornaments as gold when he
weighs them and fixes their price. Likewise, to the degree that we see the world, to that degree the atma-content gets concealed.
This concealment of what is real by its own assumed form is known as avarana (veil). In other words, the world as an avarana,
conceals atma. The same avarana of my individuated form conceals my being atma. The same creates the impression, “I and
consciousness are two”, “I am the possessor of consciousness.” When this avarana is removed, I and consciousness become
revealed to be non-dual, the world and atma to be non-dual. So what we are looking for is the way to remove this veil.
Sivananda tradition
Krishnananda. Lessons on the Upanishads
There is a screen covering the consciousness of... pure subjectivity in oneself. That screen is called avarana, the third defect of
the mind. Dross, physical impurity, is removed by karma yoga, or the performance of unselfish action. The fickleness of the mind
is subdued by upasana, or devout worship. And avarana, or the veil, is removed by jnana, or wisdom of life.
Avarana and vikshepa
General
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
Hindu tradition distinguishes two aspects of Her Power [Power of Maya], The first is that of Avarana Sakti, “the Veiling Power”. It is
that which veils Consciousness in the Veils of the Spheres. The second is Vikshepa Sakti, “the Projecting Power”. It is the Power
which projects Consciousness on to ihe Veils or Mirrors of the Spheres, and which tosses it to and fro in between them. All people
who try to think or to meditate are well aware of the oscillating characteristic of the conscious mind. The mind jumps to and fro like
a monkey. Meditation aims, among other things, at overcoming this Vikshepa or tossing of the mind, as a condition for the piercing
of the Veils.
Transmutation or transfiguration is at heart a matter of a change of consciousness. Instead of a conscious identification with the
physical body there comes a conscious identification with the emotional body; next with the thinking body, the lower mind; next
with the spiritual body; next with the essential body; and then with Consciousness Itself. A man who has attained true Manhood
knows the Source of Consciousness — not in thought, but in experience. He controls the tossing power of the mind. He just IS,
naked of all veils, and unashamed, free of delusion and sin.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
Ajnana has two aspects: avarana (veiling) and vikshepa (multiplicity). Of these, avarana (veiling) denotes the veil hiding the Truth.
That prevails in sleep. Multiplicity (vikshepa) is activity in different times. This gives rise to diversity and prevails in waking and
dream states (jagrat and svapna). If the veil, i.e., avarana is lifted, the Truth is perceived. It is lifted for a Jnani and so his karana
sarira (causal body) ceases to exist. Vikshepa alone continues for him. Even so, it is not the same for a Jnani as it is for an ajnani.
The ajnani has all kinds of vasanas, i.e., kartrtva (doership) and bhoktrtva (enjoyership), whereas the Jnani has ceased to be doer
(karta). Thus only one kind of vasana obtains for him. That too is very weak and does not overpower him, because he is always
aware of the Sat-Chit-Ananda nature of the Self. The tenuous bhoktrtva vasana is the only remnant of the mind left in the Jnani
and he therefore appears to be living in the body.
Sankara tradition
Shankara. Vivekachudamani, tr. Madhavananda
110. Maya can be destroyed by the realisation of the pure Brahman, the one without a second, just as the mistaken idea of a
snake is removed by the discrimination of the rope. She has her Gunas as Rajas, Tamas and Sattva, named after their respective
functions.
111. Rajas has its Vikshepa-Shakti or projecting power, which is of the nature of an activity, and from which this primeval flow of
activity has emanated. From this also, mental modifications such as attachment and grief are continually produced.
112. Lust, anger, avarice, arrogance, spite, egoism, envy, jealousy, etc., -- these are the dire attributes of Rajas, from which the
worldly tendency of man is produced. Therefore Rajas is a cause of bondage.
113. Avriti or the veiling power is the power of Tamas, which makes things appear other than what they are. It is this that causes
man’s repeated transmigrations, and starts the action of the projecting power (Vikshepa).
114. Even wise and learned men and men who are clever and adept in the vision of the exceedingly subtle Atman, are overpow¬
ered by Tamas and do not understand the Atman, even though clearly explained in various ways. What is simply superimposed
by delusion, they consider as true, and attach themselves to its effects. Alas ! How powerful is the great Avriti Shakti of dreadful
Tamas !
115. Absence of the right judgment, or contrary judgment, want of definite belief and doubt - these certainly never desert one who
has any connection with this veiling power, and then the projecting power gives ceaseless trouble.
116. Ignorance, lassitude, dullness, sleep, inadvertence, stupidity, etc., are attributes of Tamas. One tied to these does not com¬
prehend anything, but remains like one asleep or like a stock or stone.
Sivananda tradition
Chinmayananda. Sankara. Vivekachudamani
Commentary by Chinmayananda:
When the mind’s agitations (Vikshepa), are quietened through upasana, the veiling (Avarana) of the intellect also lifts and the bud-
dhi becomes quiet. As a result of mental quietude, when the intellect becomes bright, it is able to apprehend the Self. The Self is
thus apprehended as, ‘I am This’.
144. “Man’s bondage has sprung forth from these two “powers”. Deluded by them, he mistakes his body for the Self and wanders
from life to life.”
Commentary by Chinmayananda:
Because of these two powers (of veiling and agitations), man has reached his present stage of bondage and has become limited.
When an individual allows himself to be confused and beguiled by these two—avarana-sakti and vikshepa-sakti, he considers
himself to be his body, (gross, subtle and causal bodies). Normally everyone believes himself to be his gross body. An emotional
person may consider himself to be an emotional personality. A modern rational man may think of himself as an intellectual. Thus
confused they move about, satisfying their physical, emotional and intellectual needs. Each man acts in his peculiar delusion.
Thus they move like mad men, from one place to another, from one time to another, from one life to another, from one cradle to
one grave, and another cradle to another grave alas! continuously.
Related words
Ajnana
Avidya
Maya
Tamas
Vikshepa
Sanskrit
Avarana — 3 ilc^u|
avarana - 3H=H u l
Avatar
Variant spellings
avatar
avatara
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Avatara — ... “divine descent”; the descent of God into the world in a tangible form .
1. It is sometimes translated as “divine incarnation” but it should be noted that the term refers to the supreme Lord appearing in
this physical world in His/Her own Eternal Form out of His/Her own inconceivable prerogative. Noting this, the words descent or
incarnation may be employed.
2. According to the Vaisnava tradition there are ten major divine descendents (avalara) of Visnu: Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nara-
simha, Vamana, Parasurama, Ramacandra, Balarama, Krsna, and Kalki. A variation of this list replaces Balarama with Buddha.
3. They are of two types: principal and subordinate. The former is when Visnu himself descends and the latter is the incarnation of
inspired saints. The stories of the avataras are told in the Puranas.
4. Some accounts describe twenty-six descents of Visnu: Sanaka, Sananda, Sanatana, Sanatkumara, Varaha, Narada, Nara, Ka-
pila, Dattatreya, Yajna, Rsabhadeva, Prthu, Matsya, MohinT, Kurma, Garuda, Dhanvantari, Narasimha, Vamana, Parasurama,Vya-
sa, Ramacandra, Balarama, Krsna, Buddha, and Kalki.
5. Though Siva is usually depicted without incarnations, there is a school of thought which describes His twenty-eight incarnations
(who are depicted as the twenty-eight revealers of the Saiva Agamas.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
avatara -
descent (especially of a deity from heaven), appearance of any deity upon earth (but more particularly the incarnations of Vishrhu
in ten principal forms, viz. the fish tortoise, boar, man lion, dwarf, the two Ramas, Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki;
any new and unexpected appearance;
a TTrtha or sacred place
Wikipedia
In Hinduism, Avatar or Avatara ... refers to a deliberate descent of a deity from heaven to earth.
The term is most often associated with Vishnu, though it has also come to be associated with other deities. Varying lists of ava¬
tars of Vishnu appear in Hindu scriptures, including the ten Dashavatara of the Garuda Purana and the twenty-two avatars in the
Bhagavata Purana, though the latter adds that the incarnations of Vishnu are innumerable. The avatars of Vishnu are a primary
component of Vaishnavism. An early reference to avatar, and to avatar doctrine, is in the Bhagavad Gita.
Shiva and Ganesha are also described as descending in the form of avatars. The various manifestations of Devi, the Divine Moth¬
er principal in Hinduism, are also described as avatars or incarnations by some scholars and followers of Shaktism. The avatars
of Vishnu carry a greater theological prominence than those of other deities, which some scholars perceive to be imitative of the
Vishnu avatar lists.
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Avatar: Manifestation of divinity in human form, implying descent from above, and associated primarily with Vaishnavite religion.
The ten avatars of Vishnu are (1) Matsya, the Fish; (2) Varaha, the Boar; (3) Kurma, the Tortoise; (4) Narasimha, the Man-Lion;
(5) Vamana, the Dwarf-Brahmin (q.v.); (6) Parasu- Rama, Rama-of-the-Axe; (7) Rama (q.v.); (8) Balarama; (9) Buddha, and (10)
Kalki, the avatar yet to come. Avidya: Nescience; equivalent of Maya (q.v.) or darkness, and the oppo- site of Vidya (q.v.)
Descriptions
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Avatar is a modern Hindi word from the SANSKRIT word avatara, which means “one who has descended to the earthly realm.”
The word in both its Sanskrit and its Hindi forms is used in VAISHNAVISM to refer to the incarnations of Vishnu, which usually
number 10. Technically, Shiva never becomes an avatar. In recent times, the word avatar has come to be used for any enlight¬
ened teacher. It is, in effect, an honorific bestowed upon the teacher by his or her disciples or the larger community.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Avatar (“descent”). In Hindu mythology, the descent (of a deity), but more colloquially the incarnation, of a deity on earth. The con¬
cept of avatars has been best developed by the devotees (bhakta) of the god Vishnu, who perceive him as taking a specific form
to help the world. Examples of avatars can be found for other divinities as well.
Hindus draw a distinction between full avatars, which have the complete power of the deity, and partial incarnations, or ansha-
vatars. Vishnu has ten full avatars, each of whom has appeared to restore the cosmic balance when the world has fallen out of
equilibrium. The root cause of such disequilibrium is usually a demon (asura) who has grown too strong and uses that power to
oppress others. This imbalance prompts Vishnu to take form as an avatar, destroy the evildoers, and definitively restore the cos¬
mic balance.
Although there is some variation in the list of Vishnu’s avatars, the generally accepted list is as follows: Fish, Tortoise, Boar,
Man-Lion, Vamana (dwarf), Parashuram, Rama, Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki. This list of avatars follows an “evolutionary” se¬
quence—the first three are animals, the fourth a hybrid mananimal, and the ones after that mythic heroes and sages; the excep¬
tion is the Buddha, a real person who has been incorporated into the Hindu pantheon. The tenth form, Kalki avatar, is yet to come,
and his coming will herald the end of the age. Vishnu’s partial avatars— as sages, saints, and gods—are countless and potentially
limitless, providing a ready-made way for new Hindu movements to ascribe divine authority to their founders.
Although the avatar concept is most commonly associated with Vishnu, it has been applied to other Hindu gods as well. One
example of partial avatars can be seen in the Mahabharata, the later of the two great Hindu epics, in which all five of the Pandava
brothers are partial incarnations of various gods. In addition, devotees of the god Shiva have developed a list of his twenty-one
avatars, who are saints, sages, and minor deities. This list was probably developed in response to the Vaishnava doctrine of ava-
tars, but Shiva’s forms are far less important than Vishnu’s; Vishnu’s avatars include Rama and Krishna, who are major objects of
worship in their own right.
For the Vaishnavas, the avatar doctrine is generally seen as a way to assimilate existing cults into the pantheon by claiming that
various deities are merely different manifestations of Vishnu. The Shaiva avatars were developed much later, essentially so that
Shiva would also have these forms.
Ramakrishna tradition
Ramakrishna. Sayings of Sri Ramakrishna
WHAT IS A DIVINE INCARNATION?
703. An Avatara (Incarnation) is a human messenger of God, He is like a viceroy of a mighty monarch. As the king sends the
viceroy when there is any disturbance in some far-off province, to quell it, so whenever there is waning of religion in any part of the
world, God sends there His Avatara to guard virtue and to foster its growth.
704. Think not that Rama and Sita, Krishna and Radha, are mere allegories and not historical personages, or that the scriptures
are true only in their inner or esoteric meaning. Nay, they were human beings of flesh and blood jast as you are; but because they
were divinities, their lives can be interpreted both historically and allegorically. The Avataras are to Brahman as waves are to the
ocean. 705. The Avatara is always one and the same. Having plunged into the ocean of life, the one God rises up at one point and
is known as Krishna, and when after another plunge, He rises up at another point, He is known as Christ.
706. On the tree of Sachchidananda (Absolute Existence-Knowledge-Bliss) there hang innumerable bunches of Ramas, Krishnas,
Buddhas, Christs, etc. Out of these, one or two now and then come down into this world and produce mighty changes and revolu¬
tions.
707. The Avataras are born with Divine powers and Divine qualities. They can go into, and stay in, any state of realisation from
the highest to the lowest. In a king’s palace a stranger can go only to the outer quarters, but the king’s own child, the prince of the
house, is free to go to every corner.
Avatar in Bhagavad Gita
Nataraja. Bhagavad Gita
On close examination of these verses we find that what is stated in verse 7, where the word srija (emanate) occurs, is not the
same as stated in verse 8 where the phrase sambhavami (I become) is used. The opposition between the two has just been
explained under verse 6. To say, as has often been stated, that there is a reference to Krishna as an avatar in the Gita would be
wrong. The word avatar does not occur in the Gita at all. It is foreign to the spirit in which the Gita is written, in which both ascent
and descent are equally implied and cancelled against each other in the neutrality of the Absolute.
See also:
in Vishnu: Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
avatara - from the verb root trl = “to cross” + preposition ava = “down”.
Wikipedia
Avatara - Sanskrit “descent” [viz., from heaven to earth].
The Sanskrit noun avatara is derived from the verbal root tr “to cross over”, joined with the prefix ava “off, away , down”. The word
doesn’t occur in the Vedas, but is recorded in Panini (3.3.120). Avatara was initially used to describe different deities, then around
the 6th century CE it began to be used primarily to describe the manifestations of Vishnu. While earlier texts mention deities taking
on different forms, the Bhagavad Gita (4.5-9) is the first text to discuss the doctrine associated with the term even though the word
avatara itself is not mentioned.
Sanskrit
Avatara — 3T^cTT7
avatara - 3i<=iai<
Wikipedia: ... is mostly translated into English as “incarnation”, but more accurately as “appearance” or “manifestation”.
The common translation “incarnation” due to its christological implications is somewhat misleading as the concept of avatar cor¬
responds more closely to the view of Docetism in Christian theology, as different from the idea of God ‘in the flesh’ in mainstream
Christology.
Avidya
Variant spellings
avidya
avidya
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Avidya — ... ignorance; nescience
1. It is the key concept in the Advaita Vedanta system. It serves as the cornerstone for Advaita Vedanta metaphysics, epistemolo¬
gy, and ethical disciplines; thus its role cannot be belittled. It is characterized by six marks: it is beginningless (anadi); it is removed
by right knowledge (jnana-nivartya); it is a positive entity of the nature of an existent (bhavarupa); it is indescribable (anirvacanlya);
it has the two powers of concealment and projection which respectively represent the truth and suggest the false (avarana and
viksepa); and its locus is either in the individual self (jlva) or in the Absolute (Brahman).
2. One of the twelve links in the causal chain of existence. ... It is the root of all and the primary cause of existence according to
Buddhism.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
avidya -
ignorance, spiritual ignorance;
(in Vedanta phil.) illusion (personified as Maya);
ignorance together with non-existence
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Avidya - (“lack of [true] knowledge”) Avidya is the absence of true understanding and is the fundamental problem in almost all
Hindu philosophical and religious thought. The presence of avidya leads people to misperceive the true nature of reality and to act
based on these misperceptions.
The most fundamental of these false perceptions is to identify the eternal Self (atman) with the body. As a result of this misidentifi-
cation, egoism leads one to try to protect and advance the Self (in its particular embodied state) and incites feelings and actions of
greed, lust, and hatred. These feelings create bondage for the soul and entrap it in samsara, the cycle of rebirth.
In most Hindu philosophical schools, the avidya tends to be conceived in epistemological rather than metaphysical terms-that is, it
is not an actual thing in its own right but exists as a function of how one comes to know things, insofar as that knowledge is inac¬
curate or incomplete. Once one’s deficient awareness has been corrected, the cause of bondage is removed, resulting in the final
liberation of the soul (moksha).
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Avidya - ignorance, especially in the spiritual sense; (in Vedanta) caused by the operation of Maya.
Wikipedia
Avidya is a Sanskrit word that means “ignorance”, “delusion”, “unlearned”, “unwise” and that which is not, or runs counter to, vidya.
It is used extensively in Hindu texts, including the Upanishads and as well in Buddhist thought.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Avidya: Nescience or ignorance. That because of which the unreal is taken as the real, and the real as the unreal. The root cause
of illusions and sufferings.
Descriptions
General
Hiriyanna. Outlines of Indian philosophy
When a person is seeing silver where there is only shell, he certainly does not know it to be false. On the other hand, he then feels
convinced that it is quite as valid as any other knowledge.
... avidya, which is only another word for ajnana, implies, like jnana, some person to whom it belongs (asraya) and some object
to which it refers (visaya). ... the person that mistakes the shell for silver is its asraya, and the shell is its visaya. It is avidya [This
avidya should not be confounded with the one described above as the radical adjunct of the jiva. That is constitutive of the jiva;
this is only a passing characteristic of it. The one continues till moksa is attained; the other disappears with the error it has occa¬
sioned.] thus determined that is described as the cause of silver; and it operates in a double manner. It conceals the fact of shell
and shows up silver in its place. To see silver where there is only shell, a necessary condition is the concealment of the shell.
Suppression precedes substitution. These two aspects of it are respectively termed avarana or ‘veiling’ and viksepa or ‘revealing.’
As the avidya does not put the shell entirely out of sight, it is not lack of apprehension—a mere gap in thought—but misapprehen¬
sion and is therefore described as positive (bhava-rupa). It is the contrary of vidya, not its contradictory; and the condition for the
resulting error to disappear is the removal of avidya which happens when vidya arises in the self-same person in regard to the
self-same object.
Muller. The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy
It might seem sometimes as if Avidya too, which is answerable for the whole of this phenomenal world, had to be taken as the
result of acts far back before the beginning of all things. But this is never clearly stated. On the contrary, this primeval Avidya is left
unexplained, it is not to be accounted for as little as Brahman can be accounted for. Like Brahman it has to be accepted as exis¬
tent ; but it differs from Brahman in so far as it can be destroyed by Vidya, which is the eternal life-spring of Brahman. The merit
which can be acquired by man even in this state of Avidya is such that he may rise even to the status of a god, though for a time
only, for at the end of a Kalpa even gods like Indra and the rest have to begin their career afresh. In fact it might be said with some
truth that Avidya is the cause of everything, except of Brahman ; but that the cause of that primeval Avidya is beyond our powers
of conception.
Wikipedia
In Advaita Vedanta
The work of avidya is to suppress the real nature of things and present something else in its place. In essence it is not different
from Maya (pronounced Maya). Avidya relates to the finite Self (Sanskrit: atman) while Maya is an adjunct of the cosmic Self. In
both cases it connotes the principle of differentiation which is implicit in human thinking. It stands for that delusion which breaks up
the original unity (refer: nonduality) of what is real and presents it as subject and object and as doer and result of the deed. What
keeps humanity captive in Samsara is this avidya. This ignorance is not lack of erudition; it is ignorance about the nature of ‘Being’
(Sanskrit: Sat). It is a limitation that is natural to human sensory or intellectual apparatus. This is responsible for all the misery of
humanity. Advaita Vedanta holds that the eradication of it should be humanity’s only goal and that will automatically mean Realisa¬
tion of the Self (Sanskrit: atman).
Adi Shankara on avidya
Adi Shankara says in his Introduction to his commentary on the Brahma Sutras, “Owing to an absence of discrimination, there
continues a natural human behaviour in the form of ‘I am this’ or This is mine’; this is avidya. It is a superimposition of the attri¬
butes of one thing on another. The ascertainment of the nature of the real entity by separating the superimposed thing from it is
vidya (knowledge, illumination)”. In Shankara’s philosophy avidya cannot be categorized either as ‘absolutely existent’ or as ‘abso¬
lutely non-existent’.
Buddhism
Root of suffering
Avidya plays a key role in Buddhism and Buddhist doctrine and is the primary cause of suffering in samsara.
Avidya is one of the three klesas.
Avidya is the first link of PratTtyasamutpada.
Avidya is the first spoke on the Bhavacakra.
As one of the klesas, Avidya leads to craving (trsna) and clinging (upadana). As the first link of Pratitya- Samutpada, all other links
depend on it. As the first spoke on the Bhavacakra, all subsequent states follow in its wake.
Uprooting avidya
The antidote to avidya is “wisdom” (Skt.: prajna; Pali: panna). This is achieved by practicing awareness/mindfulness (Pali: sati,
Skt: smrti), patient endurance (Skt: ksanti; Pali: khanti) and meditation (Skt: dhyana), all three of which are incorporated in the
pan- Buddhist practices of the Noble Eightfold Path and the paramitas (“perfections”).
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
Avidya is ignorance. It implies subject and object. Become the subject and there will be no object...
M.: ... People ask: “How did ignorance (avidya) arise at all?” We have to say to them: “Ignorance never arose. It has no real being.
That which is, is only vidya (knowledge).”
D.: Why then do I not realise it?
M.: Because of the samskaras. However, find out who does not realise and what he does not realise. Then it will be clear that
there is no avidya (ignorance)...
D.: Is there avidya?
M.: For whom is it?
D.: For the ego-self.
M.: Yes, for the ego. Remove the ego; avidya is gone. Look for it, the ego vanishes. The real Self alone remains. The ego profess¬
ing avidya is not to be seen. There is no avidya in reality.
Sankara tradition
Sadananda. Vedantasara, tr. Nikhilananda
Avidya and pramanas
Sivananda tradition
Dayananda. Talks on Vivekachudamani
The avidya cannot be perceived by senses, therefore it is not available for pratyaksa-pramana, perception. Since it is not available
for perception there is no linga from which it can be inferred. So neither anumana, inference nor arthapatti, postulation is going to
be useful. Again, there is nothing like avidya, so it is not available for any kind of upamana, comparison. Avidya cannot be known
by anupalabdhi, a prarnana giving the knowledge of absence of a thing, because it has some kind of existence as it causes prob¬
lems.
Auidya is not available for the sabda-pramana, words also. If you analyse it will be seen that the sabda-prarnana is interested only
in showing you the purusartha, pursuits. Sabda is going to talk about something that is hita, beneficial to you.
See: Manas and avidya
See: Maya, avidya, ajnana
See: Vidya and avidya
See also:
Sakshin and sushupti
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
avidya— from ihe verb root vid = “to know” a = “not”
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Avidya from neg. part, a + vidya, knowing < root vid, to know.
Wikipedia
The word avidya is derived from the Proto-lndo- European root *weid-, meaning “to see” or “to know”. It is a cognate of Latin
videre (which would turn to “video”) and English “wit”.
Related words
Ajnana
Avarana
Jnana
Maya
Moha
Vidya
Vikshepa
Sanskrit
Avidya — 3iRf fli
avidya - y d EG l
Chinese: - wu ming
Japanese: - Mumyo
Pali: Avijja
Avyakta
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Avyakta —... unmanifest
1. Sankhyan term for primal Nature (prakrti).
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
avyakta -
(in Sankhya phil.) ‘the unevolved (Evolver of all things)’, the primary germ of nature, primordial element or productive principle
whence all the phenomena of the material world are developed
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Avyakta: That which is not specific and definable. The opposite of vyakta.
Ramakrishna tradition
Vivekananda. The science and philosophy of religion
The ancient teachers define Avyaktam, as the ‘equilibrium of the three forces,’ one of which is called sattva, the second rajas and
the third tamas. Tamas, the lowest force, is that of attraction; a little higher is rajas, that of repulsion; and the highest is the control
of these two, sattva; so that when the two forces, attraction and repulsion, are held in perfect control or balance, by the sattva,
there is no creation, no modification; but as soon as this equilibrium is lost, the balance is disturbed and one of these forces gets
stronger than the other. Then change and motion begin and evolution of all these goes on. This state of things is going on cycli¬
cally, periodically; that is to say, there is a period of disturbance of the balance, when all these forces begin to combine and re¬
combine, and this universe is projected; and there is also a period when everything has a tendency to revert to the primal state of
equilibrium, and the time comes when a total absence of all manifestations is reached. Again, after a period, this state is disturbed,
the forces tend to project outward and the universe slowly comes out in the form of waves; for all motions in this universe are in
the form of waves, in successive rises and falls.
Descriptions
General
Muller. The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy
The commentator [Sankhya] begins by asking, ‘Now what are the eight Prakritis?’ and he answers, again in technical terms which
will have to be explained :
‘1. The Avyakta (chaos), 2. Buddhi (light or perception), 3. Ahamkara (subjectivity), and 4-8, the five Tanmatras (transcendental
elements).’
He then continues : 1. ‘Here then the Avyakta, neuter (the undeveloped), is explained. As in the world various objects such as wa¬
ter-jars, cloth, vases, beds, &c, are manifest, not so is the Avyakta manifest. It is not apprehended by the senses, such as the ear,
&c. And why? Because it has neither beginning, middle, nor end, nor has it any parts. It is inaudible, intangible, invisible, indestruc¬
tible, eternal, without savour and odour. The learned declare it to be without beginning and middle, to be beyond what is great,
unchanging, pre-eminent. And again, this Avyakta is subtle, without attributes, without beginning or end, producing (Prasuta), but
alone of all the eight Prakritis unproduced (Aprasuta), without parts, one only, but common to all. And these are its synonyms, that
is to say, words applicable to the Avyakta, under certain circumstances : Pradhana (principal), Brahman, Pura (abode), Dhruva
(unchanging), Pradhanaka (chief), Akshara (indestructible), Kshetra (field, object),Tamas (darkness), Prasuta (productive).’
Radhakrishnan. Philosophy of Upanishads
The idea of an avyakta or prakrti, the source of all differentiation, is distinctly suggested in the Upanisads. “Beyond the senses are
the rudiments of its objects; beyond these rudiments is the mind; beyond the mind is Atman known as mahat (great), beyond the
mahat is avyakta, the unmanifested; beyond the avyakta is the purusa, beyond the purusa there is nothing.” (Katha, III, 10, 11.) “
By tapas Brahman increases in size and from it food is produced, from food life, mind, the elements, the worlds, karma, and with it
its fruits.” (Mundaka, I, 1.) Food or annam in this passage is interpreted by Sankara as the unmaniferted (avyakrtam).
See also: Evolution of prakriti (Sankhya)
Etymology
General
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Avyakta (fr. neg. part, a + prep, vi, apart + akta, anointed, perf. pass, participle of the root anj, to anoint), ‘unmanifest matter’, an¬
other name for prakrti.
Related words
Prakriti
Opposite: Vyakta
Sanskrit
Avyakta —
avyakta -
Ayamatma- Brahma
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Ayam-atma brahma — ... “this Self is the Absolute (Brahman)”
1. A Great Saying (maha-vakya) which occurs in the Mandukya Upanisad of the Atharva Veda.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Ayamatma Brahman (“This Self is Brahman”). In the Hindu philosophical tradition, one of the “great utterances” (mahavakyas)
expressing ultimate truth. The truth here is the identity of atman (the individual Self) and Brahman (Ultimate Reality); this identity is
the heart of the mystical texts called the Upanishads. Aside from their importance in a philosophical context as fundamental truths,
four mahavakyas were also appropriated as symbols by the four divisions of the Dashanami Sanyasi ascetics. Each division had
its own mahavakya, just as each had a different Veda, a different primary sacred center, and a different ascetic quality. Ayamatma
Brahman is the mahavakya associated with the Anandawara division of the Dashanami Sanyasis.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
To meditate on it [atman], the ancient wise ones made a formula, ayam atma brahma. It means, this atma is brahman; this self-lu¬
minous awareness that resides in all beings is the Absolute. That which is other than that which lies between the skin and all the
other urges, it never perishes. When we contemplate this, when we meditate on it continuously, there comes the perfection of that
awareness.
Descriptions
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
To say “ I am the body,” is relativistically true, of course. We can see there are other bodies and that we are not pulsating within
them as we are within this one. Our own body does have something special in a relative sense, but in the greater search this con¬
ception is an error to be corrected.
... For this correction another great dictum was given by the Upanishads: ayam atma brahman, “ this Self of mine is the Absolute.”
Narayana Guru has already defined the Self as “ that which remains in darkness and makes things known to us, that is the Self.”
Now we say that Self is the Absolute. The light which is within us, which is Self-founded, which makes it known to us that we exist
and also makes it known to us that other things exist, that is the Self. It is not contaminated with any relativistic notion such as “
I am the body,” or “ I am in pain,” “ I am happy,” “ I am unhappy.” These are colorations. If the colorations are removed and you
understand the Absolute, the pure notion, then you have a very infallible measuring rod to discern what is true and what is not.
This does not happen in a single day, because your mind is already colored with many preconditioned prejudices. To experience
ayam atma brahman, this Self is the Absolute, many accretions of the mind have to be rubbed off and removed, many prejudices
have to fall. You have developed many likes and dislikes because of your physical sense of pain and pleasure, the kind of food
you have been given since childhood, the manners you were taught and the social values on which you were nurtured. Hundreds
and hundreds of colorations have come into your life, constraining it and directing it in so many arbitrary ways, that to remove all
these and know what the pure Self is is not an easy thing. But it is a great necessity if you want to adopt a correct methodology for
the rest of your life, to make correct appraisals, and to not mistake the right for the wrong. Once you have that correct method, you
have a testimony to measure the truth of things.
See: Mahavakyas as used for instruction
Related words
Atharva Veda
Maha-Vakya
Mandukya Upanishad
Sanskrit
Ayam-atma brahma —
ayam atma brahma -H ldH q/H
B
Badarayana
See: Vyasa
Bhagavad Gita
Title variants
^ Mill'd
Bhagavad Gita
Bhagavad Gita
Bhagavad Gita
BhagavadgTta
Bhagavat Geeta
Descriptions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Bhagavad Gita — ... “song of God”
One of the essential scriptures of Hinduism, a portion of the Mahabharata, in which Krsna, on the battlefield of Kuruksetra, in¬
structs Arjuna about the nature of God, the universe, and the Self; on the different forms of Yoga; and on the way to attain God.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
bhagavadglta -
(sometimes with upanisad);
... ‘Krishna’s song’, N. of a celebrated mystical poem (interpolated in the MBh. where it forms an episode of 18 chapters from vi,
830-1532, containing a dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna, in which the Pantheism of the Vedanta is combined with a tinge of
the Sarhkhya and the later principle of bhakti or devotion to Krishna as the Supreme Being
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Bhagavad Gita means “Song about God.” It is a segment, dating from around 200 B.C.E., of the MAHABHARATA, the classic
Sanskrit epic traditionally ascribed to VYASA. It has 18 chapters totaling approximately 700 verses. In the framework of a legend¬
ary battle, the poem presents a philosophy of life and states principles guiding the practices of YOGA.
Wikipedia
The Bhagavad Gita (“Song of God”) is one of the most important Hindu scriptures. It is revered as a sacred scripture of Hinduism,
and considered as one of the most important philosophical classics of the world. The Bhagavad Gita comprises 700 verses, and is
a part of the Mahabharata. The teacher of the Bhagavad Gita is Krishna, Who is revered by Hindus as a manifestation of the Lord
Himself, and is referred to within as Bhagavan—the Divine One.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Meditations on the self
Bhagavad Gita - A philosophical dialogue expounding the science of the Self occurring in the Bhisma Parva section of the great
Indian epic Mahabharata.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Ramana Smrti
... Another devotee complained that it was difficult to keep all its seven hundred verses in mind and asked if there was not a verse
that could be remembered as the gist of the whole Gita. Bhagavan immediately mentioned Verse twenty of Chapter ten:
Aham Atma, Gudakesa, Sarvabhutashayasthitah Aham
Adischa Madhyam cha bhutanam anta eva cha.
I am the Self, O Gudakesa, dwelling in the hearts of all beings.
I am the beginning, and the middle and the end of all beings.
Date and text
Wikipedia
The Bhagavad Gita occurs in the Bhishma Parva of the Mahabharata and comprises 18 chapters from the 25th through 42nd and
consists of 700 verses. Its authorship is traditionally ascribed to Vyasa, the compiler of the Mahabharata. Because of differenc¬
es in recensions the verses of the Gita may be numbered in the full text of the Mahabharata as chapters 6.25-42 or as chapters
6.23-40. According to the recension of the Gita commented on by Shankaracharya, the number of verses is 700, but there is
evidence to show that old manuscripts had 745 verses. The verses themselves, using the range and style of Sanskrit meter (ch-
handas) with similes and metaphors, are written in a poetic form that is traditionally chanted.
The Bhagavad Gita is later than the great movement represented by the early Upanishads and earlier than the period of the de¬
velopment of the philosophic systems and their formulation. The date and the author of the Gita is not known with certainty and
scholars of an earlier generation opined that it was composed between the 5th and the 2nd century BCE. Radhakrishnan, for
example, asserted that the origin of the Gita is definitely in the pre- Christian era. More recent assessments of Sanskrit literature,
however, have tended to bring the chronological horizon of the texts down in time. In the case of the Gita, John Brockington has
now made cogent arguments that it can be placed in the first century CE.
Based on claims of differences in the poetic styles some scholars like Jinarajadasa have argued that the Bhagavad Gita was add¬
ed to the Mahabharata at a later date.
Within the text of the Bhagavad Gita itself, Krishna states that the knowledge of Yoga contained in the Gita was first instructed to
mankind at the very beginning of their existence.
Although the original date of composition of the Bhagavad Gita is not clear, its teachings are considered timeless and the exact
time of revelation of the scripture is considered of little spiritual significance by scholars like Bansi Pandit, and Juan Mascara.Swa-
mi Vivekananda dismisses concerns about differences of opinion regarding the historical events as unimportant for study of the
Gita from the point of acquirement of Dharma.
Scripture of Yoga
Wikipedia
The Gita addresses the discord between the senses and the intuition of cosmic order. It speaks of the Yoga of equanimity, a de¬
tached outlook. The term Yoga covers a wide range of meanings, but in the context of the Bhagavad Gita, describes a unified out¬
look, serenity of mind, skill in action and the ability to stay attuned to the glory of the Self (Atman) and the Supreme Being (Bhaga-
van). According to Krishna, the root of all suffering and discord is the agitation of the mind caused by selfish desire. The only way
to douse the flame of desire is by simultaneously stilling the mind through self- discipline and engaging oneself in a higher form of
activity.
However, abstinence from action is regarded as being just as detrimental as extreme indulgence. According to the Bhagavad
Gita, the goal of life is to free the mind and intellect from their complexities and to focus them on the glory of the Self by dedicating
one’s actions to the divine. This goal can be achieved through the Yogas of meditation, action, devotion and knowledge. In the
sixth chapter, Krishna describes the best Yogi as one who constantly meditates upon him - which is understood to mean thinking
of either Krishna personally, or the supreme Brahman - with different schools of Hindu thought giving varying points of view.
Krishna summarizes the Yogas through eighteen chapters. Three yogas in particular have been emphasized by commentators:
Bhakti Yoga or Devotion,
Karma Yoga or Selfless Action
Jnana Yoga or Self Transcending Knowledge
While each path differs, their fundamental goal is the same - to realize Brahman (the Divine Essence) as being the ultimate truth
upon which our material universe rests, that the body is temporal, and that the Supreme Soul (Paramatman) is infinite. Yoga’s aim
(moksha) is to escape from the cycle of reincarnation through realization of the ultimate reality. There are three stages to self- re¬
alization enunciated from the Bhagavad Gita:
Brahman - The impersonal universal energy
Paramatma - The Supreme Soul sitting in the heart of every living entity.
Bhagavan - God as a personality, with a transcendental form.
Major themes of yoga
The influential commentator Madhusudana Sarasvati (b. circa 1490) divided the Gita’s eighteen chapters into three sections, each
of six chapters. According to his method of division the first six chapters deal with Karma Yoga, which is the means to the final
goal, and the last six deal with the goal itself, which he says is Knowledge (Jnana). The middle six deal with bhakti. Swami Gam-
bhirananda characterizes Madhusudana Sarasvati’s system as a successive approach in which Karma yoga leads to Bhakti yoga,
which in turn leads to Jnana yoga.
Bhakti Yoga
In the introduction to Chapter Seven of the Gita, bhakti is summed up as a mode of worship which consists of unceasing and lov¬
ing remembrance of God. As M. R. Sampatkumaran explains in his overview of Ramanuja’s commentary on the Gita, “The point is
that mere knowledge of the scriptures cannot lead to final release. Devotion, meditation and worship are essential.”
As Krishna says in the Bhagavad Gita:
“And of all yogins, he who full of faith worships Me, with his inner self abiding in Me, him, I hold to be the most attuned (to me in
Yoga).”
“After attaining Me, the great souls do not incur rebirth in this miserable transitory world, because they have attained the highest
perfection.”
those who, renouncing all actions in Me, and regarding Me as the Supreme, worship Me... For those whose thoughts have
entered into Me, I am soon the deliverer from the ocean of death and transmigration, Arjuna. Keep your mind on Me alone, your
intellect on Me. Thus you shall dwell in Me hereafter.”
“And he who serves Me with the yoga of unswerving devotion, transcending these qualities [binary opposites, like good and evil,
pain and pleasure] is ready for liberation in Brahman.”
“Fix your mind on Me, be devoted to Me, offer service to Me, bow down to Me, and you shall certainly reach Me. I promise you
because you are My very dear friend.”
“Setting aside all meritorious deeds (Dharma), just surrender completely to My will (with firm faith and loving contemplation). I shall
liberate you from all sins. Do not fear.”
Jnana Yoga
Jnana Yoga is a process of learning to discriminate between what is real and what is not, what is eternal and what is not. Through
a steady advancement in realization of the distinction between Real and the Unreal, the Eternal and the Temporal, one develops
into a Jnana Yogi. This is essentially a path of knowledge and discrimination in regards to the difference between the immortal
soul (atman) and the body.
In the second chapter, Krishna’s counsel begins with a succinct exposition of Jnana Yoga. Krishna argues that there is no rea¬
son to lament for those who are about to be killed in battle, because never was there a time when they were not, nor will there be
a time when they will cease to be. Krishna explains that the self (atman) of all these warriors is indestructible. Fire cannot burn
it, water cannot wet it, and wind cannot dry it. It is this Self that passes from body to another body like a person taking worn out
clothing and putting on new ones. Krishna’s counsel is intended to alleviate the anxiety that Arjuna feels seeing a battle between
two great armies about to commence. However, Arjuna is not an intellectual. He is a warrior, a man of action, for whom the path of
action, Karma Yoga, is more appropriate.
“When a sensible man ceases to see different identities due to different material bodies and he sees how beings are expanded
everywhere, he attains to the Brahman conception.”
“Those who see with eyes of knowledge the difference between the body and the knower of the body, and can also understand
the process of liberation from bondage in material nature, attain to the supreme goal.”
Karma Yoga
Karma Yoga is essentially Acting, or doing one’s duties in life as per his/her dharma, or duty, without concern of results - a sort
of constant sacrifice of action to the Supreme. It is action done without thought of gain. In a more modern interpretation, it can be
viewed as duty bound deeds done without letting the nature of the result affecting one’s actions. Krishna advocates Nishkam Kar¬
ma (Selfless Action) as the ideal path to realize the Truth. Allocated work done without expectations, motives, or thinking about its
outcomes tends to purify one’s mind and gradually makes an individual fit to see the value of reason and the benefits of renounc¬
ing the work itself. These concepts are vividly described in the following verses:
“To action alone hast thou a right and never at all to its fruits; let not the fruits of action be thy motive; neither let there be in thee
any attachment to inaction”(2.47)
“Fixed in yoga, do thy work, O Winner of wealth (Arjuna), abandoning attachment, with an even mind in success and failure, for
evenness of mind is called yoga”(2.48)
“With the body, with the mind, with the intellect, even merely with the senses, the Yogis perform action toward self-purification,
having abandoned attachment. He who is disciplined in Yoga, having abandoned the fruit of action, attains steady peace...”
In order to achieve true liberation, it is important to control all mental desires and tendencies to enjoy sense pleasures. The follow¬
ing verses illustrate this:
“When a man dwells in his mind on the object of sense, attachment to them is produced. From attachment springs desire and from
desire comes anger.”(2.62)
“From anger arises bewilderment, from bewilderment loss of memory; and from loss of memory, the destruction of intelligence and
from the destruction of intelligence he perishes”(2.63)
Eighteen Yogas
In Sanskrit editions of the Gita, the Sanskrit text includes a traditional chapter title naming each chapter as a particular form of
yoga. These chapter titles do not appear in the Sanskrit text of the Mahabharata.[63] Since there are eighteen chapters, there are
therefore eighteen yogas mentioned, as explained in this quotation from Swami Chidbhavananda:
All the eighteen chapters in the Gita are designated, each as a type of yoga. The function of the yoga is to train the body and the
mind.... The first chapter in the Gita is designated as system of yoga. It is called Arjuna Vishada Yogam - Yoga of Arjuna’s Dejec¬
tion.
In Sanskrit editions, these eighteen chapter titles all use the word yoga, but in English translations the word yoga may not ap¬
pear. For example, the Sanskrit title of Chapter 1 as given in Swami Sivananda’s bilingual edition is arjunavisadayogah which he
translates as “The Yoga of the Despondency of Arjuna”. Swami Tapasyananda’s bilingual edition gives the same Sanskrit title,
but translates it as “Arjuna’s Spiritual Conversion Through Sorrow”.The English-only translation by Radhakrishnan gives no San¬
skrit, but the chapter title is translated as “The Hesitation and Despondency of Arjuna”. Other English translations, such as that by
Zaehner, omit these chapter titles entirely.
Swami Sivananda’s commentary says that the eighteen chapters have a progressive order to their teachings, by which Krishna
“pushed Arjuna up the ladder of Yoga from one rung to another.” As Winthrop Sargeant explains,
In the model presented by the Bhagavad Gita, every aspect of life is in fact a way of salvation.
Author(s)
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Bhagavad Gita
Krsna Dvaipayana Vyasa
Nitya. Meditations on the self
Bhagavad Gita - ... written by Veda Vyasa.
Etymology
Dictionary - Grimes
Bhagavad Gita - “song of God” (from the verb root bhaj = “to love, revere” + ga = “to sing”)
Synopsis
General
Wikipedia
The content of the Gita is the conversation between Krishna and Arjuna taking place on the battlefield before the start of the Ku-
rukshetra war. Responding to Arjuna’s confusion and moral dilemma about fighting his own cousins, Krishna explains to Arjuna
his duties as a warrior and prince and elaborates on different Yogic and Vedantic philosophies, with examples and analogies. This
has led to the Gita often being described as a concise guide to Hindu theology and also as a practical, self- contained guide to life.
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi describes it as a lighthouse of eternal wisdom that has the ability to inspire any man or woman to supreme
accomplishment and enlightenment. During the discourse, Krishna reveals His identity as the Supreme Being Himself (Svayam
Bhagavan), blessing Arjuna with an awe- inspiring vision of His divine universal form.
In summary the main philosophical subject matter of the Bhagavad- gita is the explanation of five basic concepts or “truths.”:
Ishvara (The Supreme Controller)
Jiva (Living beings/the individualized soul)
Prakrti (Nature/Matter)
Dharma (Duty in accordance with Divine law)
Kaala (Time)
Overview of chapters
The Gita consists of eighteen chapters in total:
1. Arjuna requests Krishna to move his chariot between the two armies. When Arjuna sees his relatives on the opposing army side
of the Kurus, he loses courage and decides not to fight.
2. After asking Krishna for help, Arjuna is instructed that only the body may be killed as he was worried if it would become a sin to
kill people (including his gurus and relatives), while the eternal self is immortal. Krishna appeals to Arjuna that as a warrior he has
a duty to uphold the path of dharma through warfare.
3. Arjuna asks why he should engage in fighting if knowledge is more important than action. Krishna stresses to Arjuna that per¬
forming his duties for the greater good, but without attachment to results is the appropriate course of action.
4. Krishna reveals that he has lived through many births, always teaching Yoga for the protection of the pious and the destruction
of the impious and stresses the importance of accepting a guru.
5. Arjuna asks Krishna if it is better to forgo action or to act. Krishna answers that both ways may be beneficent, but that acting in
Karma Yoga is superior.
6. Krishna describes the correct posture for meditation and the process of how to achieve samadhi.
7. Krishna teaches the path of knowledge (Jnana Yoga).
8. Krishna defines the terms brahman, adhyatma, karma, atman, adhibhuta and adhidaiva and explains how one can remember
him at the time of death and attain his supreme abode.
9. Krishna explains panentheism, “all beings are in me” as a way of remembering him in all circumstances.
10. Krishna describes how he is the ultimate source of all material and spiritual worlds. Arjuna accepts Krishna as the Supreme
Being, quoting great sages who have also done so.
11. On Arjuna’s request, Krishna displays his “universal form” (Visvarupa), a theophany of a being facing every way and emitting
the radiance of a thousand suns, containing all other beings and material in existence.
12. Krishna describes the process of devotional service (Bhakti Yoga).
13. Krishna describes nature (prakrti), the enjoyer (purusha) and consciousness.
14. Krishna explains the three modes (gunas) of material nature.
15. Krishna describes a symbolic tree (representing material existence), its roots in the heavens and its foliage on earth. Krishna
explains that this tree should be felled with the “axe of detachment”, after which one can go beyond to his supreme abode.
15. Krishna tells of the human traits of the divine and the demonic natures. He counsels that to attain the supreme destination one
give up lust, anger and greed, discern between right and wrong action by evidence from scripture and thus act rightly.
16. Krishna tells of three divisions of faith and the thoughts, deeds and even eating habits corresponding to the three gunas.
17. In conclusion, Krishna asks Arjuna to abandon all forms of dharma and simply surrender unto him. He describes this as the
ultimate perfection of life.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Bhagavad Gita
TEACHER: Let me introduce the Gita to you.
STUDENT: What is the Gita?
Do you know the Mahabharata? ... an epic called the Mahabharata ... reflects the life and ideals of the people who lived in India
around 1000 B.C. ...We can easily call it an encyclopedia of psychological types and a compendium of Upanisadic thoughts and
ideals.
Who wrote this epic?
It is believed that Krsna Dvaipayana Vyasa composed the Mahabharata .... The name Vyasa literally means a compiler or editor.
How is Vyasa related to the Gita?
In Vyasa’s Mahabharata there is a section called BhTsmaparva. In it there is a sub-section consisting of seven hundred verses
beginning with verse 830. This sub-section is called the Bhagavad Gita...
Is the Gita a holy book?
Many people look upon it as an object of worship. Some carry it with them as a talisman, others touch it to ward off evil. These
are very crude and childish ways of expressing appreciation for the Gita. Actually the Gita teaches us to go beyond the idea of the
holy and the unholy, so it is not right to look upon the Gita as a holy book. You should evaluate it as a book of great wisdom, and
approach it in the right manner.
What do you mean by the right manner?
If you want to understand, appreciate, and critically evaluate a book, you should first be qualified to read it. This is called, in San¬
skrit, having adhikara, competency. Secondly, you should know with what subject the book is dealing.In other words, you should
know the epistemology of the book. In Sanskrit the subject matter is called visaya. Thirdly, you should know the method employed
in the book to arrive at its conclusive teaching. The methodology adopted in a book is called its samhandha. Fourthly, you should
know the purpose of the book, and how you are going to be benefited by its study. In Sanskrit this is called the prayojana of the
book, its axiology. Thus, if you are competent to read a book with reference to its epistemology, methodology, and axiology, you
would make a correct evaluation of it. Only in that case can you claim to have the right kind of appreciation. ...
What is the subject-matter of the Gita?
In one word we can describe it as brahmavidya, the Science of the Absolute. By Absolute we mean here that supreme knowledge
which is Self-founded and by which alone everything exists and everything is known. Until you realize this truth, you know only
relative factors. One who feels the pangs of life and does not know how to get out of them is called a visadi. Visada means the
sadness generated by conflict. Conflict arises out of paradoxical situations, and life bristles with paradoxes. The enigmas and par¬
adoxes of life can be resolved only by knowing the Absolute.
The Bhagavad Gita, in a very comprehensive manner, deals with the riddles of life. In the first chapter is presented a typical seek¬
er confronted by a grave enigma which he cannot get over by mere ratiocination. A carping seeker, questioning everything in a
state of agony, is called a purvapaksin, an anterior skeptic. The whole of the first chapter and the first nine verses of the second
chapter consist of the presentation of the anterior skeptic, Arjuna.
The second chapter explains the stand of the wisdom teacher, Krsna. In contrast to the notions of a skeptic who is in conflict, the
wise one always sees the omnipresence of the Absolute as the true foundation of everything, and as the indwelling spirit in every¬
one. Knowing the Absolute as one’s own imperishable Self is described in the second chapter as Sarhkhya Yoga.
A man who is afflicted by world-consciousness, even after realizing that he is none other than the Absolute, will find it hard to keep
away from the necessary demands of his biological and psychological urges. It is these urges that necessitate action. Hence it is
necessary to discuss the implications of action in the context of wisdom. The third chapter of Gita, therefore, describes how action
can be unitively treated so that it will not bind the agent to the consequent result.
What is unitive action?
That will be explained later. Brute action is to be differentiated from action guided by wisdom. Comprehensive knowledge and uni¬
tive action are counterparts of a situation. Each has its own discipline and is to be understood separately. The secret of being wise
and also acting accordingly is taught in the fourth chapter called Jnana Yoga.
The fifth chapter is Karma Sarhnyasa Yoga. In this chapter it is shown how the necessary aspects of life can be unitively treated.
Finding peace in one’s own Self and sharing it with others is made the chief goal of life; and following the dictates of the Absolute
in every situation is treated as most natural to the realized person.
The sixth chapter is called Dhyana Yoga. This chapter describes Yoga more as a discipline than a philosophical vision. It is de¬
scribed as a sadhana (discipline undergone to achieve a specific attainment), and not as a darsana (a truth to be visualized). In
this chapter it is taught how the self is raised by the higher Self, and how the lower self can be fully established in the higher Self.
The self finding its natural repose in the Self is described as a true state of Yoga.
What is the higher Self?
It is the same as God. The seventh chapter is Jnana Vijnana Yoga. In it all values are categorized in terms of the physical,
adhibhautika, the divine, adhidaivika, and the sacrificial, adhiyajnika. These are graded and arranged in such a manner that one
value complements the other. This chapter also teaches how the Self can be related to the non-Self without conflict.
The eighth chapter is called Aksara Brahma Yoga. To contemplate the benign qualities of the Supreme Lord of one’s own Self is
the highest form of devotion. Devotion verticalizes the mind and action horizontalizes it. To fight an enemy with valour and stra¬
tegic tact is undoubtedly a horizontalized attitude of the mind. In spite of the conflicting nature of these two attitudes-fighting and
contemplation-Arjuna is taught in this chapter how he can contemplate the Lord as his own Self and also fight. The dialectical
secret by which one can cancel out pairs of opposites is presented in this chapter.
The ninth chapter is called Raja Vidya Raja Guhya Yoga.
Guhya means secrect. Does this chapter deal with anything esoteric or occult? Is it open to all?
There is nothing esoteric about it. No discipline can be termed scientific, sastra, unless it is open and universal, both in its scope
and application. The Gita presents a Science of the Absolute. It does not withhold from anyone any secret whatsoever.
Then in what sense is this cnapter a secret?
Einstein’s Theory of Relativity can remain a secret to those who do not know higher mathematics and advanced physics. As in
the study of physics, there is a methodical way in which the Gita works out its lessons. Each chapter leads to the next, and we
come to its conclusive teaching in the ninth chapter. To be able to grasp the full implications of the secrets of the Gita, the student
should be disciplined in its special methodology, the dialectical way of reasoning, yoga mlmamsa.
The type of reasoning we commonly employ is linear. When we argue from a general principle to a specific conclusion, or induc¬
tively hypothesize a general notion, our reason conforms to the pattern of linear thinking. On the other hand, when we cognize
the polarization of counterparts that belong to a dialectical situation, and arrive at a unitive or integrated notion cancelling out the
elements of contradiction in the opposing pairs, we are employing dialectical reasoning. In this chapter our mind is lifted to the loft¬
iest heights of sublimity, and hence this is called the chapter of the supreme secret. This chapter is introductory to the tenth, which
narrates the cosmic structure of the universe in terms of divine values.
Does each chapter deal with a separate topic? Has the Gita any inner coordination?
Truth is many-faceted, and innumerable are the possible angles of vision. Each angle permits us only a relative vision. However,
each vision has its own structural secrets and functional participation with the whole. Hence it is necessary to have a separate
chapter to provide each comprehensive vision with a suitable frame of reference consistent with an overall scheme of correlation.
The eighteen chapters of the Gita are not disjunctly designed. Each chapter is structurally related to its adjacent chapters, and is
intended to be complementary to them. The eighteen chapters are arranged as spokes on the hub of brahmavidya, the Science of
the Absolute. The method employed in each chapter has, in common with the rest, the goal of the realization of the Self through
Yoga. Further, we see that the conclusive teaching given at the close of the ninth chapter is again repeated in the closing chapter.
This again shows that the Gita has a consistent teaching, which can undoubtedly be described as one-pointed devotion, ekantika
bhakti.
Instead of giving the conclusive teaching only in the last chapter, why is it given
in the ninth as well as the eighteenth chapter?
The author of the Gita has in his mind a structural design of his work. He uses the first half of the book to discuss fundamentals
and pure principles. The second half is for applied philosophy. It is in this second half that he gives the diagnostic and symptom¬
atic analysis of personality, which one can apply to oneself to discern one’s svadharma. Svadharma is the Sanskrit term for the
characteristic foundation of individual personality. Both the pure teaching of the first half and the applied teaching of the second
half lead to the same teaching that one should live always in the adoration of the Absolute, feeling one’s identity with the Absolute
in thought, word and deed. We now go on to the second half of the book.
Our true being is the Self, atman. Atman is described as sat-cit-ananda. Sat means existence, cit is subsistence, and ananda is
the value-factor. Actual presences or value-factors belonging to the universe are described in this chapter as aspects of the Ab¬
solute with which we can relate ourselves. The difference between the values presented in the previous chapter and this one is
negligible. Comparatively, the values given in the ninth chapter are more conceptual. This justifies the title, “Unitive Recognition of
Positive Values”, Vibhuti Yoga, for the tenth chapter.
Why is ananda translated as value? If atman is the same as the Absolute, all experiences should come within its scope. Pain, suf¬
fering, disease, poverty, and death are not at all blissful or enjoyable. Is not ananda the opposite of misery?
We can catalogue a long list of evil items, but we cannot assign the cause of these to an agency outside the pale of the Abso¬
lute. That is why we don’t want to translate ananda as bliss. The term we use here is “value”. Items of pleasure can be arranged
in terms of qualitative or quantitative units of values of an ascending or descending order. We are counting positive values when
we go from indifference to the highest state of bliss. We descend in the value-scale when we go from the highest bliss to the zero
point. If we go any further from the zero point we will advance in the opposite direction, which should be counted as negative val¬
ues. Thus, pain and pleasure, irrespective of their accompanying modes of affectivity, come under the scale of values, positive or
negative.
Earlier you said that from the tenth chapter onward we come to the application of the teachings given in the first nine chapters.
The tenth chapter also appears to be theoretical rather than being applied.
In the tenth chapter we only just enter the second half of the book. Here, Krsna has to prepare the mind of Arjuna to receive an
experience which is very unusual and difficult to comprehend in its entirety, or to appreciate without sufficient instruction. Thus the
tenth chapter actually marks the beginning of applied yoga in the Science of the Absolute.
How does Arjuna experience the cosmic structure of values?
The eleventh chapter is the “Unitive Vision of the Absolute”. In Sanskrit this is called Visvarupa Darsana Yoga. We get empirical
certitude by direct perception. The Absolute and spiritual values cannot be directly perceived, but they can be intuitively visualized.
Spiritual vision also is direct. While direct perception in Sanskrit is called pratyaksa, (seen by the eye), spiritual vision is called
aparoksa (not perceived by another). Arjuna gets a direct vision of the Absolute with the aid of an inner eye of spiritual vision with
which he was blessed by his Guru, SrT Krsna. The mere description of the Absolute gives only a theoretical understanding and in¬
tellectual appreciation. It should be followed by one’s own direct experience. This chapter is devoted to the description of Arjuna’s
direct experience.
The twelfth chapter is named Bhakti Yoga. We may translate it as “Unitive Devotion and Contemplation”. The term bhakti is used
here in a very specific sense. It is not just an emotional attachment or an enchantment that one feels towards the Divine. Bhakti, in
Vedanta, means “continuous contemplation of one’s own true nature as the Absolute”. A true model of bhakti (devotion), and of a
bhakta (devotee), is given in this chapter.
The thirteenth chapter is Ksetra Ksetrajna Vibhaga Yoga. Ksetra means “the field”, Ksetrajna is “the knower of the field”. In Bhakti
Yoga we learn that it is the Divine that dwells in every being. This chapter enables us to differentiate the Self from the non-Self. It
is translated as “The Unitive Understanding of the Distinction between the Actual and the Perceptual”.
Does everybody experience devotion the same way?
Peter differs from Paul. The fourteenth chapter deals with personality variations based on guna. It is entitled Gunatrayavibhaga
Yoga. Guna means “a quality”. In the present context the reference is to nature-modality. Hence this chapter is called “The Unitive
Way of Transcending the Three Nature Modalities”. All of us and everything in nature are evolutes of the three modalities of na¬
ture.
The fifteenth chapter is called Purusottama Yoga. In the Sarhkhyan philosophy there are two primary factors called purusa and
prakrti. Purusa is equivalent to the “Supreme Spirit”, and prakrti is primordial matter from which nature is supposed to have
evolved. The duality of purusa and prakrti, spirit and matter, is transcended by conniving the “Supreme Spirit” as the highest reali¬
ty. The Gita names it purusottama. The title of this chapter is translated as “The Unitive Approach to the Paramount Person”.
The sixteenth chapter is called Daiva Asura Sarhpad Vibhaga Yoga. The three gunas mentioned in the previous chapters are said
to create all conditioning impressions which are responsible for building up one’s character. Once they are formed, they persist
even through several lives. In the present chapter, reference is made to two main tendencies which run vertically through one’s
life, giving a contiguous character to one’s habitual choice. The higher nature is called daivi sampatti, and the lower nature is
called asuri sampatti. Daiva means “divine”, and asura means “demonic”. Daivi sampatti therefore means tendencies which are
spiritually rich. The opposite is asuri. To assess the value structure of your personality, you should discern these two tendencies
clearly, and should see how far your thoughts, beliefs, and behaviour are influenced by each.
How does a man diagnose the influence of inherent tendencies?
The seventeenth chapter is called Sraddhatraya Vibhaga Yoga. It is very much diagnostic in character. Sraddha literally means
“deep interest”. Interest is an indicator of one’s innate disposition, nature, and character. By observing symptoms, a doctor can
diagnose a disease. In this chapter we get a symptomatic diagnosis of one’s basic character. The Gita teaches us how to analyze
our individual self in terms of the three nature-modalities discussed earlier. It also teaches us how to take into account our high¬
er and lower nature. It further discusses five types which are somewhat akin to the psychological types of Jung. These are the
Sarhnyasi, the renunciate, the Brahmin, scholarly priest, the Ksatriya, warrior, the Vaisya, tradesman, and the Sudra, the ser¬
vant. We should be cautious not to treat these as social classes belonging to the stratified social system of India, indiscriminately
termed as varna or jati. The types discussed here are universal. This chapter is aptly called “The Unitive Recognition of the Three
Patterns of Faith”.
The last chapter, which is the eighteenth, is called Sarhnyasa Yoga. For one who seeks the highest Truth, there is no knowledge
greater than brahmavidya. Realization of the Absolute gives release from all bondage. It is preceded by renunciation resulting
from proper discrimination. Correctly conceived renunciation is called sarhnyasa. Hence this chapter is described as “The Unitive
Way in Behaviour Patterns”.
Does the Gita teach Yoga, or the Science of the Absolute?
Each chapter of the Gita ends with a reference to brahmavidya, yoga-sastra, and samvada. Each of these terms connotes a differ¬
ent meaning. There is no doubt the Gita is a textbook of the Science of the Absolute, brahmavidya. The Absolute is not a thing or
an event. It gives rise to many relative notions. That means it can be approached from many angles of vision. The method of dis¬
cussion employed in the Gita is dialectical, not basically inferential. Hence it is called yoga- sastra. The literary device employed
by the author is in the form of a dialogue between Krsna as teacher and Arjuna as disciple. That is why it is called a dialogue, a
samvada. The parables and dialogues in the Upanisads are given a more cogent and philosophically structured presentation in
the Gita. For all practical purposes, the Gita can be considered the essence of the Upanisads.
Why is such a special device adopted?
In philosophical discussions there are bound to be anterior skepticisms, as well as finalized, conclusive teaching. Arjuna rep¬
resents the anterior skeptic. He raises doubts, apprehensions, and uncritically believed dogmas. Krsna examines the stand of Ar¬
juna in each case, and gives Arjuna his conclusive teaching. In the Sanskrit tradition such an anterior critic is called pGrvapaksin,
and the person who gives conclusive or final teaching is called siddhantin.
What troubles me is the description of the Gita as yoga-sastra. Each chapter is described as a different yoga. Patanjali describes
yoga as a state of the cessation of the modification of mind, citta- vrtti-nirodha. Does the Gila use the term in the same sense? If it
does, why is the first chapter called Visada Yoga? Visada is a slate of mental distress. Naturally a disturbed state cannot be de¬
scribed as yoga.
The Gita does not exclude Patanjali’s meaning of yoga. Yoga is conceived in a wider sense in the Gita. The end and means are
so interlaced in yoga that they cannot be dualistically separated. Yoga literally means “union”. It is etymologically related to the
English term “to yoke”. Dialectical thinking implies synthesis of a thesis and its antithesis. The Bhagavad Gita employs a type of
reasoning which is more dialectical than linear or inferential. Dialectical reasoning Sanskrit is called yoga mlmamsa. The visada,
or mental perturbance, of Arjuna is highlighted in the first chapter as the stand of an anterior critic who is fit to become an ac¬
complished dialectician. The chapters which follow reject Arjuna’s contentions by cancelling them out with counter-theses before
Krsna’s conclusive teaching is given. The specific sense in which visada yoga is used will be elaborated later.
When yoga is popularly understood as a state of perfection or spiritual absorption, why do you say that Vyasa uses the term yoga
in this book only to indicate the type of methodology he has adopted?
Most people think of ends and means dualistically. When taken separately, “means” can become a painful anticipation, and can
lead one ultimately even to frustration. When ends and means are unitively conceived there is a continuous and progressive re¬
alization of the end in the application of the means. For instance, when a child runs after a ball, his game is a “means” to gain the
“end” of happiness. Here, ends and means have no real dichotomy between them. Happiness is not an award given at the end
of the game. Right from the beginning, when the child kicks as well as misses the ball, he is in a state of happiness which is the
natural end of the game. In other words, the game provides to the child a yoga of ends and means. The Bhagavad Gita treats the
whole of life as a game presided over by the Supreme Lord, Isvarah. The various positions within the game offer different roles
and each person is expected to approach it from a stipulated angle in a certain manner. That is why each chapter of the Gita fo¬
cuses its attention on a different aspect.
Realization is not a static event; it is a continuous process. In all states and stages of life, the higher Self is to be realized in the
lower self, and the lower self is to be seen as an expression of the higher Self. Arjuna is presented in the Gita as the individual
mind or personal psyche, and Krsna, as the Guru, stands for the cosmic mind or universal psyche. Arjuna is confused because of
a disparity or incompatibility in his notion of the personal and the universal. The Gita attempts to avoid this implied duality by bring¬
ing Arjuna’s mind in line with Krsna’s wisdom or, say, the oneness of the jlva, the individual self, and Isvarah, the Lord. Agreement
in a certain approach need not necessarily imply agreement in all others. Hence, the Gita takes into account the various possible
approaches to the Absolute, and establishes an abiding rapport between Krsna and Arjuna on different levels. This accounts for
each chapter of the Gita being termed an Upanisad. In that sense we have in the Gita eighteen songs and eighteen Upanisads...
To understand the Gita is it imperative to study the Mahabharata also?
The Mahabharata is a rare classic. If one can afford the time to go through it even once, there is no doubt that it will be of great
help. However, it is not imperative thai we should know the whole of the Mahabharata to know the purport of the Gita. The
Mahabharata is used only as an epic- canvas upon which to paint the perennial philosophy of the Gita. The texture of the canvas
should be carefully discerned from the painting. The central teaching of the Gita stands apart, complete in itself. To get the maxi¬
mum benefit one should relate the teaching of the Gita to one’s own life.
Publications
Commentaries
Wikipedia
Traditionally the commentators belong to spiritual traditions or schools (sampradaya) and Guru lineages (parampara), which claim
to preserve teaching stemming either directly from Krishna himself or from other sources, each claiming to be faithful to the orig¬
inal message. In the words of Hiriyanna, “[The Gita] is one of the hardest books to interpret, which accounts for the numerous
commentaries on it - each differing from the rest in an essential point or the other.”
Different translators and commentators have widely differing views on what multi-layered Sanskrit words and passages signify,
and their presentation in English depending on the sampradaya they are affiliated to. Especially in Western philology, interpreta¬
tions of particular passages often do not agree with traditional views.
The oldest and most influential medieval commentary was that of the founder of the Vedanta school of extreme ‘non-dualism”,
Shankara (788-820 A. D.), also known as Shankaracharya (Sanskrit: Sankaracarya). Shankara’s commentary was based on a
recension of the Gita containing 700 verses, and that recension has been widely adopted by others. There is not universal agree¬
ment that he was the actual author of the commentary on the Bhagavad Gita that is attributed to him. A key commentary for the
“modified non-dualist” school of Vedanta was written by Ramanujacharya (Sanskrit: Ramanujacharya), who lived in the eleventh
century A.D. Ramanujacharya’s commentary chiefly seeks to show that the discipline of devotion to God (Bhakti yoga) is the way
of salvation. The commentary by Madhva, whose dates are given either as (b. 1199-d. 1276) or as (b. 1238 - d. 1317), also
known as Madhvacharya (Sanskrit: Madhvacarya), exemplifies thinking of the “dualist” school. Madhva’s school of dualism asserts
that there is, in a quotation provided by Winthrop Sargeant, “an eternal and complete distinction between the Supreme, the many
souls, and matter and its divisions.” Madhva is also considered to be one of the great commentators reflecting the viewpoint of the
Vedanta school.
In the Shaiva tradition, the renowned philosopher Abhinavagupta (10-11th century CE) has written a commentary on a slightly
variant recension called Gitartha-Samgraha.
Other classical commentators include Nimbarka (1162 AD), Vallabha(1479 AD)., while Dnyaneshwar (1275- 1296 AD) translated
and commented on the Gita in Marathi, in his book Dnyaneshwari.
In modern times notable commentaries were written by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi, who used the text to help
inspire the Indian independence movement. Tilak wrote his commentary while in jail during the period 1910-1911, while he was
serving a six- year sentence imposed by the British colonial government in India for sedition. While noting that the Gita teaches
possible paths to liberation, his commentary places most emphasis on Karma yoga. No book was more central to Gandhi’s life
and thought than the Bhagavadgita, which he referred to as his “spiritual dictionary”. During his stay in Yeravda jail in 1929, Gand¬
hi wrote a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita in Gujarati. The Gujarati manuscript was translated into English by Mahadev Desai,
who provided an additional introduction and commentary. It was published with a Foreword by Gandhi in 1946. Mahatma Gandhi
expressed his love for the Gita in these words:
I find a solace in the Bhagavadgita that I miss even in the Sermon on the Mount. When disappointment stares me in the face and
all alone I see not one ray of light, I go back to the BhagavagTta. I find a verse here and a verse there and I immediately begin to
smile in the midst of overwhelming tragedies - and my life has been full of external tragedies - and if they have left no visible, no
indelible scar on me, I owe it all to the teaching of Bhagavadgita.
Three translations: Bhagavad Gita As It Is, a Gujarati translation by Gita Press, and another English one published by Barnes &
Noble.
Other notable modern commentators include Sri Aurobindo, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and Swami Vivekananda, who took a syn-
cretistic approach to the text.
Swami Vivekananda, the follower of Sri Ramakrishna, was known for his commentaries on the four Yogas - Bhakti, Jnana, Kar¬
ma and Raja Yoga. He drew from his knowledge of the Gita to expound on these Yogas. Swami Sivananda advises the aspiring
Yogi to read verses from the Bhagavad Gita every day. Paramahamsa Yogananda, writer of the famous Autobiography of a Yogi,
viewed the Bhagavad Gita as one of the world’s most divine scriptures. A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, the founder of
the International Society for Krishna Consciousness, wrote Bhagavad- Gita As It Is- a commentary on the Gita from the perspec¬
tive of Gaudiya Vaishnavism. In 1965, the modern sage Maharishi Mahesh Yogi published his own commentary of the Gita and
proclaimed his technique of Transcendental Meditation to be the practical procedure for experiencing the field of absolute Being
described by Lord Krishna.
Translations
English translations
The Bhagavat Geeta or Dialogs of Kreeshna and Arjoon. Transl. by Wilkins. London, 1785.
The Bhagavadgita. Transl. by J. Davis. Orient. Ser. N° 31. Tubingen, 1882.
The Bhagavadgita. Transl. by Telang. «The Sacred Books of the East». Vol. 8. Oxford. 1882.
The Bhagavadgita. Transl. by Thomson. Hertford, 1855.
The Bhagavadgita with the comment by Qri Qankaracarya. Transl. by Mahadeva Qastri. Madras. 1897.
The Bhagavadgita. Transl. by Barnett. London, 1905.
The Bhagavadgita. Transl. by A. Besant and Bh. Das. 1905.
The Bhagavadgita. Transl. by Johnson. New-York, 1908.
The Bhagavadgita. Transl. by Hill. Oxford. 1928.
Ramanuja’s commentary on the Bhagavadgita. Transl. by Igvaradatta. Hyderabad (Deccan), 1930.
Bhagavadgita (a student’s edit.). Transl. by Sarama. Madras, 1930.
The Song Celestial or Bhagavad Gita. Transl. by E. Arnold. London, 1935.
The Bhagavadgita. Transl. by Nikhilananda. Ramakrishna-Vivekananda centr. edit., 1944.
Bhagavad Gita. Transl. by F. Edgerton. Vol. 1—2. Harvard. Univ. Press, 1946. (With transcr. of the text).
Bhagavadgita. Transl. by S. Radhakrishnan. New-York, 1948.
French translations
Le Chant du Bienheureux. Trad. par. E. Burnouf. Paris. 1861. (Avec une transcr. du texte).
La Bhagavadgita. Trad, par E. Senar. Paris, 1922.
Bhagavadgita. Trad, par St. Michalski-lvenski. Paris, 1923.
La Bhagavadgita. Trad. parS. Levi. Paris, 1938.
German translations
Bhagavadgita. Ubers. von E. Peiper. Leipzig. 1834 (In yamb. Vers).
Die Bhagavadgita. Ubers. von Lorinser. Breslau, 1869.
Bhagavadgita. Ubers. von L. Schroeder. Jena, 1915.
Die Bhagavadgita. Ubers. von R. Garbe. 2 Aufl. Leipzig. 1921.
Vier Philosophische Texte des Mahabharatam. Ubers. von Deussen. 2 Aufl. Leipzig, 1922.
Latin translation
Bhagavadgita. Interp. latinae, curante Schlegeli. 2 ed. Bonn, 1846.
Russian translations
BaryaT-reia nnn Eecefla KpuwHbi c ApflwyHOM. riepeB. H. HoBMKOBa. M., 1788.
ExaraBafl Tma. riepeB. A. n. Ka3HaHeeBon. BnaflUMup, 1909.
ExaraBaflrma. «f1epeBOfl c aHrnnncKoro n caHCKpmcKoro» KaivieHCKon n MaHquapnu. Kanyra, 1914.
Wikipedia
English translations
The first translation of Bhagavad Gita to English was done by Charles Wilkins in 1785. In 1808 passages from the Gita were part
of the first direct translation of Sanskrit into German, appearing in a book through which Friedrich Schlegel became known as the
founder of Indian philology in Germany.
Another English translation is by Barbara Stoler Miller.
Related words
Bhakti Yoga
Jnana Yoga
Karma Yoga
Mahabharata
Prasthana-traya
Yoga
External links
Original text
Mahabharata 6.23-6.40 (sacred-texts.com)
Translations and Commentaries
1890 translation by William Quan Judge
1900 translation by Sir Edwin Arnold
The Gita According to Gandhi by Mahadev Desai of Mahatma Gandhi’s 1929 Gujurati translation and commentary
1942 translation by Swami Sivananda
1971 translation by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada entitled Bhagavad Gita As It Is with Sanskrit text and English com¬
mentary.
1988 translation by Ramananda Prasad
1992 translation and commentary by Swami Chinmayananda
1993 translation by Jagannatha Prakasa (John of AIIFaith)
2001 translation by Sanderson Beck
2004 metered translation by Swami Nirmalananda Giri
Six commentaries: by Adi Sankara, Ramanuja, Sridhara Swami, Madhusudana Sarasvati, Visvanatha Chakravarti and Baladeva
Vidyabhusana (all in Sanskrit)
Essays on Gita by Sri Aurobindo
Gita Supersite Original text, with several accompanying translations or commentaries in Sanskrit, English, or Hindi
Multiple English Translations easy to navigate
Bhagavan
Variant spellings
Bhagavn
bhagavan
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Bhagavan — ... Lord; God; revered person; venerable; the fortunate; the powerful; blessed one
1. The Lord. The one who is glorious, illustrious, divine, venerable. A term of address for God, or saints, sages, perfected ones,
denoting what is glorious, divine, venerable, and holy. He possesses six divine qualities: knowledge (jnana), strength (bala), lord-
ship (aisvarya), potency (sakti), virility (vlrya), and splendor (tejas). (SeeTsvara.)
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Bhagavan in Sanskrit means “one who is glorious, illustrious, revered, divine, or holy.” It is the most common word for “God” in
Hinduism. In its sense of “holy” or “divine” it is also used as an honorific for gurus and divine personages, for example, Bhagavan
Sri RAJNEESH.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Bhagavan (“Blessed One”). Name denoting both respect and reverence. In different contexts this name can be used as an epi¬
thet of either the god Krishna (as in the Bhagavad Gita) or the god Shiva. In modern usage, at least in northern India, it is also the
word that comes closest to expressing the notion of abstract divinity, much like the word “God” in English. It is often used to de¬
note God by Hindus who are religious but who do not worship particular deities.
Wikipedia
Bhagavan, also written Bhagwan or Bhagawan
In some traditions of Hinduism it is used to indicate the Supreme Being or Absolute Truth, but with specific reference to that Su¬
preme Being as possessing a personality (a personal God). This personal feature indicated in Bhagavan differentiates its usage
from other similar terms[3] such as Brahman, the “Supreme Spirit” or “spirit”, and thus, in this usage, Bhagavan is in many ways
analogous to the general Christian conception of God.
Bhagavan used as a title of veneration is often translated as “Lord”, as in “Bhagavan Krishna”, “Bhagavan Shiva”, “Bhagavan
Swaminarayan”, etc. In Buddhism and Jainism, Gautama Buddha, Mahavira and other Tirthankaras, Buddhas and bodhisattvas
are also venerated with this title. The feminine of Bhagavat is BhagawatT and is an epithet of Durga and other goddesses.
The title is also used as a respectful form of address for a number of contemporary spiritual teachers in India.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Bhagavan: The word denoting God, used in the context of devotion (bhakti). Literally, one in possession of brilliant qualities (bha-
gas).
Nitya. Psychology of Darsanamala
The word [bhagavan] means “that power which can remain concealed or make itself overtly manifest.” The following qualities are
attributes of bhagavan: anima, “being atomic”; laghima, “becoming very subtle”; mahima, “becoming very gross”; garima, “to be
concrete”; prapti, “to achieve anything by mere volition”; prakamyam, “experiencing the properties of an object without the actual
presence of the object”; Tsitvam, “the power to create, control, and protect”; vasitvam, “to attract”; and finally srTmat, “to be gra¬
cious.”
Descriptions
General
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
The Six Supreme Achievements of Hindu tradition are in their traditional order: All-Lordliness, Dharma, Fame, All-Prosperity, Wis¬
dom and Renunciation. These Six Achievements, also called Bhaga, make a sage into a Bhagavan, a word implying “the glorious,
the venerable, the worshipful, the victorious, the blessed Lord”. This title has been given to Buddhas, to Jain Tirthankaras and to
Hindu Avataras and Jnanis.
Ramakrishna tradition
Ramakrishna. The gospel of Sri Ramakrishna
He who is called Brahman by the jnanis is known as Atman by the yogis and as Bhagavan by the bhaktas.
... But the Reality is one and the same. The difference is only in name. He who is Brahman is verily Atman, and again, He is the
Bhagavan. He is Brahman to the followers of the path of knowledge, Paramatman to the yogis, and Bhagavan to the lovers of
God.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Bhagavan - from the root bhag = “good fortune, wealth, splendor, power” + van “possessor, Master, having”.
Wikipedia
Bhagavan - from the Sanskrit nt-stem bhaga-vant- nominative/vocative Bhagavan, literally means “possessing fortune,
blessed, prosperous” (from the noun bhaga, meaning “fortune, wealth”, cognate to Slavic bog “god”), and hence “illustrious, divine,
venerable, holy”, etc.
Related words
Ishvara
Sanskrit
Bhagavan — *-P 13 H
bhagavan - 'TTTTT
Bhajana
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Bhajana — ... devotional singing
1. Individual or group singing of devotional songs, hymns, and chants. Devotional songs in praise of the Divine. It is a form of pure
and unadulterated devotion to God.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
bhajana -
the act of sharing;
possession;
reverence, worship, adoration
Wikipedia
A Bhajan is any type of Indian devotional song. It has no fixed form: it may be as simple as a mantra or kirtan or as sophisticat¬
ed as the dhrupad or kriti with music based on classical ragas and talas. It is normally lyrical, expressing love for the Divine. The
name, a cognate of bhakti, meaning religious devotion, suggests its importance to the bhakti movement that spread from the south
of India throughout the entire subcontinent in the Moghul era.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Bhajana: Popularly, to sing devotional songs. Philosophically, intense contemplation.
Nitya. Love and Blessings
Bhajan: In practice, musical recitations of scriptures and hymns, often accompanied by musical instruments. Literally it means to
contemplate something consistently.
Descriptions
General
Wikipedia
Anecdotes and episodes from scriptures, the teachings of saints and descriptions of gods have all been the subject of bhajans.
The Dhrupad style, Sufi qawwali and the kirtan or song in the Haridasi tradition are related to bhajan. Nanak, Kabir, Meera,
Narottama Dasa, Surdas and Tulsidas are notable composers. Traditions of bhajan such as Nirguni, Gorakhanathi, Vallabhapan-
thi, Ashtachhap, Madhura- bhakti and the traditional South Indian form Sampradya Bhajan each have their own repertoire and
methods of singing.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
bhajana - from the root bhaj = “to love, worship, praise”.
Sanskrit _
Bhajana — iTfFT
bhajana - W
Bhakta
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Bhakta — ... devotee; lover of God
1. A devotee; a lover or worshipper of God. Followers of Bhakti Yoga, the path of love and devotion.
2. According to Visistadvaita Vedanta, a devotee is one type of seeker of liberation. They are those who have read the Veda
together with its auxiliaries and the Upanisads, and who, from the knowledge of the earlier and later parts of the MTmamsa, have
determined the nature of the Absolute (Brahman) as different from individuals (cit) and the world (acit). They are of the nature of
bliss and know Brahman as of the nature of bliss, infinitude, and unsurpassability.
3. A stage of consciousness.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
bhakta -
distributed, assigned, allotted;
divided;
forming part of, belonging to;
loved, liked;
served, worshipped;
dressed, cooked;
engaged in, occupied with, attached or devoted to, loyal, faithful, honouring, worshipping, serving;
a worshipper, votary;
food or a meal;
boiled rice;
any eatable grain boiled with water;
a vessel;
a share, portion
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Bhakta (“sharer”) In Hinduism, this word denotes a devotee of any particular deity. The word’s literal meaning, “sharer,” has a two¬
fold sense. On one hand, the devotee shares in the deity’s grace by virtue of his or her piety. On the other hand, since most Hindu
devotionalism involves a community of worshipers, the devotee also gets to share in the company and community of like-minded
people.
Wikipedia
Bhakta - one who practices bhakti is called a bhakta.
Descriptions
General
Dasgupta. Hindu Mysticism
Mysticism in Europe has a definite history. In spite of the variety of its types, it may roughly be described to refer to the belief that
God is realised through ecstatic communion with Him. With the Islamic mystics, the Christian mystics, and the devotional mystics
or bhaktas of India, the vision of God and His grace is attained through devotional communion or devotional rapture of various
kinds. But in all these mystics, we find a keen sense of the necessity of purity of mind, contentment, ever alert striving for mor¬
al goodness, self-abnegation, and one- pointedness to God. There can be no true mysticism without real moral greatness. This
mysticism should therefore be distinguished from a mere delusory faith that God often grants us a vision of Him or appears to us
in dreams, or from a faith in the infallibility of the scriptures and so forth, for the latter are often but manifestations of credulity or of
a tendency to believe in suggestions, and may often be associated with an inadequate alertness of critical and synthetic intellect.
... the conception of God as creator, supporter, father, lord and master, or as the ultimate philosophical principle, is subordinated
to the conception of god as the nearest and dearest. The most important feature is His nearness to and His intimacy with us-not
His great powers, which create a distance between Him and us. That He is the greatest of the great and the Highest of the high,
that there is nothing greater and higher than Him is admitted by all. His greatness, however, does not reveal the secret of why He
should be so dear to us. He may be the greatest, highest, loftiest and the most transcendent, but yet He has made His home in
our hearts and has come down to our level to give us His affection and love. Indeed He is conceived as so near to us that we can
look upon Him and love Him with the love of a very dear friend, or with the devotion and the intensity of love of a spouse. Love is a
great leveller; the best way of realizing God is by making Him an equal partner in life by the force of intense love.
The legend of Krishna supplies a human touch to God’s dealings with men. With the help of this legend the bhaktas of the new
school, by a peculiar mystical turn of mind, could conceive of God as at once a great being with transcendent powers and also as
an intimate friend or a dear lover maintaining human relations with his bhaktas. The episodes of Krishna’s life in Brindaban are
spiritualized. They are often conceived to happen on a non-physical plane where both Krishna and his partners are thought to
play their parts of love and friendship in non-physical bodies. Thus they are not regarded as particular events that took place at
specific points of time in the life of a particular man, Krishna. They are interpreted as the eternal, timeless and spaceless play of
God with His own associates and His energies, with whom He eternally realizes Himself in love and friendship. The part that his
bhaktas had to play was to identify themselves, by a great stretch of sympathy, as partners in or spectators of God’s love-play,
and find their fullest satisfaction in the satisfaction of God. For a true bhakta, it is not necessary, therefore, that his sense-inclina¬
tions should be destroyed. What is necessary is merely that these should be turned towards God and not towards himself, i.e.,
that he use his senses not for his own worldly satisfaction but to find enjoyment and satisfaction in the great love-drama of God
by identifying himself with one of the spiritual partners of God in his love- play. Hence it is not essential that all desires and sense-
functions, as the Gita says, be destroyed, or that the individual behave as if he had desires while yet being absolutely desireless.
It was required that the bhakta have the fullest satisfaction of his sense and inclinations by participating in the joys of Krishna in
his divine love-play. For such participation and vicarious enjoyment was regarded as true love (preman), while the satisfaction of
one’s own senses or of one’s own worldly purposes was viewed as a vicious passion. Thus here we have a new scheme of life.
The ideal of desirelessness and absolute self-control is replaced by that of participation in a drama of divine joy, and the desires
are given full play in the direction of God. Desires are not to be distinguished; only their directions are to be changed.
... In the Narayaniya chapter of the fifth canto of the Mahabharata God is spoken of as a father, mother and teacher; and in the
Yoga Sutra of Patanjali and elsewhere the idea is often expressed that God originally taught the Vedas to the sages and that He is
therefore the original teacher. In all these writings, however, the love of God supercedes deep reverence. The true bhakta looked
upon God as the divine dispenser; he considered all that he had-- kingdoms, riches, wife and all that he could call his own-to be
God’s. Love of God as the mother of the world plays an important part in the religious attitude of many bhakti worshippers. This
is particularly true in the case of Ramprasad and others, notably the sage Ramakrishna of recent times. And in this attribution of
motherliness to God both Ramprasad and Ramakrishna view Him as a tender mother who is always helping her child, condoning
his sins and transgressions, partial to his weaknesses and concerned to better him. Nevertheless He cannot be attained by mere
formal worship but only through a whole-hearted worship, with a proper control of the sense-inclinations.
...I have thus far confined myself to a description of different forms of mysticism as portrayed in Sanskrit writings. I shall now turn
to the mysticism of divine love that found expression in the vernaculars of North India and of the South. But this is a vast subject
and I can say only a few word.
Let me advert first to the Alvar saints of the South, the earliest of whom belonged to the second and the latest to the tenth century,
A. D. They all wrote psalms or songs in Tamil, a Dravidian tongue of South India. They were inspired by the teachings of Vaish-
navism when it travelled from the North to the South.
With reference to Nam Alvar, Govindacarya has said: “Briefly, Saint Nam Alvar declares that when one is overcome by bhakti
exaltation, trembling in every cell of his being, he must freely and passively allow this influence to penetrate his being, and carry
him beyond all known states of consciousness; never from fear or shame that bystanders may take him for a madman, ought the
exhibition of this bhakti-rapture that deluges his being, to be suppressed. The very madness is the means of distinguishing him
from the ordinary mortals to whom such beatific vision is necessarily denied. The very madness is the bhakta’s pride. In that very
madness, the saint exhorts, “run, jump, cry, laugh and sing, and let every man witness it.”
... The essence of the teachings of Namdev, as of almost all the other bhaktas of whom I shall now be speaking, is purity of mind,
speech, and deed, utter disregard of castes, creeds and other social distinctions, a tendency to leave all for God, and in love and
joy to live in God always, utterly ignoring all social, communal and religious prejudices, narrowness, dogmas and bigotry. It is held
that God is omnipotent and omnipresent and that He cannot be identified with any particular deity or his character properly narrat¬
ed by any particular legendary or mythical ways of thinking. At the same time it is contended that we may call him by any name we
like, for He is always the same in all.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Bhagavad Gita
This section, moreover, does not refer to bhakti (devotion) as something to be actively cultivated from the side of the devotee, but
rather refers to conformity to the will of the Absolute by which the devotee is said to become dear to the Absolute, as stated in the
termination of almost every verse from 13 to 19.
The reference in verse 13 to being equalized in pain and happiness does not suggest any more a bhakta than a contemplative
yogi. The principal feature of the yoga of the Gita lies in the concept of samya (equalization) as recognized by Arjuna in vi 33.
There is a regular definition of yoga itself as consisting of samatvam (equanimity), in ii, 48.
Even in chapter v,wherein renunciation is the principal theme, we find in verses 19 and 20 the same idea of equanimity or equal¬
ization given due importance. Thus, whether it is action, renunciation, or devotion, this equalization of two counterparts is a com¬
mon distinguishing feature of the perfected yogi, irrespective of the section of chapter where it is discussed. If we keep this in
mind, the rest of this section (verses 13 to 19 inclusive) hardly needs further comment.
[Chapter 12]
Ramakrishna tradition
Ramakrishna. The gospel of Sri Ramakrishna
However much a bhakta may experience physical joy and sorrow, he always has knowledge and the treasure of divine love. This
treasure never leaves him. Take the Pandava brothers for instance. Though they suffered so many calamities, they did not lose
their God-Consciousness even once. Where can you find men like them, endowed with so much knowledge and devotion?
... Since one cannot easily get rid of the ego, a bhakta does not explain away the states of waking, dream, and deep sleep. He
accepts all the states. Further, he accepts the three gunas—sattva, rajas, and tamas. A bhakta sees that God alone has become
the twenty-four cosmic principles, the universe, and all living beings. He also sees that God reveals Himself to His devotees in a
tangible form, which is the embodiment of Spirit.
The bhakta takes shelter under vidyamaya. He seeks holy company, goes on pilgrimage, and practises discrimination, devotion,
and renunciation. He says that, since a man cannot easily get rid of his ego, he should let the rascal remain as the servant of God,
the devotee of God.
Ramakrishna. Sayings of Sri Ramakrishna
The Sattvic devotee performs his devotions in secret. He meditates in the night in his bed inside the mosquito-curtain, and there¬
fore rises late in the morning—a fact explained by his friends as due to want of good sleep. The care he bestows on the body ends
by providing it with plain food—perhaps a little rice and vegetables. Of luxury he has none, either in food or in dress. There is no
show of fittings and furniture in his house, and he never seeks to rise in the world by flattery. The Rajasic devotee has perhaps
distinctive sectarian marks on his body and beads round his neck, with perhaps a few golden ones interspersed. He is particular
about outward observances such as wearing silk at the time of worship and celebrating the worship of the Deity with pomp and
splendour. The Tamasic devotee has a fiery faith. He applies force to God like a robber seizing things by force. “ What!” he says, “I
have uttered His ‘name’ and yet I am to remain sinful! I am His son! I am duly entitled to the inheritance of His wealth I” Such is his
vehement ardour.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
Many visitors came on one occasion and they all saluted Sri Bhagavan with the single prayer, “Make me a bhakta. Give me mok-
sha.” After they left Sri Bhagavan said, thinking aloud: All of them want bhakti and moksha. If I say to them, ‘Give yourself to me’
they will not. How then can they get what they want?
Bhakta and Bhakti-yoga
Ramakrishna tradition
Ramakrishna. The gospel of Sri Ramakrishna
Even after attaining samadhi, some retain the ‘servant ego’ or the ‘devotee ego’. The bhakta keeps this ‘l-consciousness’. He
says, ‘O God, Thou art the Master and I am Thy servant; Thou art the Lord and I am Thy devotee.’ He feels that way even after
the realization of God. His T is not completely effaced. Again, by constantly practising this kind of ‘l-consciousness’, one ultimately
attains God. This is called bhaktiyoga.
See: Saguna-brahman and bhaktas
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
bhakta - from the verb root bhaj = “to love, worship, revere”.
Related words
Bhakti
Bhakti Yoga
Sanskrit
Bhakta —
bhakta -
Bhakti
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Bhakti — ... loving devotion
1. The path of devotion leading to union with God; the state of intense devotional love for God or guru. It is one of the paths to
liberation (bhakti marga).
2. Devotion is said to be of two types: sadhana-bhakti (comprised of astanga-yoga, sadhana-saptaka, etc.) and phala-bhakti (re¬
ceived by an individual through God’s grace spontaneously).
3. It is also divided into nine forms: sravana, klrtana, smarana, padasevana, arcana, vandana, dasya, sakhya, and atma-nivedana.
4. Devotion to God can assume many forms and the devotee can be related to God in one of many attitudes. The chief ones are
dasya, the attitude of a servant to his master; sakhya, the attitude of a friend to a friend; vatsalya, the attitude of a parent to a
child; santa, the attitude of a child to a parent; kanta, the attitude of a wife to a husband; rati, the attitude of a lover to the beloved;
and dvesa, the attitude of an atheist toward God.
5. Visistadvaita Vedanta defines devotion as “a continuous stream of remembrance of God uninterrupted like the flow of oil from
one vessel to another.”
6. Vaisnavas divide perfect love of God (ragatmika bhakti) into kamatmika (consisting of a desire for erotic and mystical enjoyment
inspired by an exclusive effort to please Krsna) and sambandhatmika (consisting of a sense of relationship to Krsna). The former
is composed of sneha (affection wherein the heart melts); mana (affected repulse of endearment due to excess emotion); pran-
aya (friendly confidence); raga (erotic transmutation of sorrow into joy); and anuraga (love as a constant freshness). Under the
latter, the modes of vatsalya and sakhya involve sneha, mana, pranaya, raga, and anuraga, while the dasya mode includes all but
anuraga and the santa mode involves none of them.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
bhakti -
distribution, partition, separation;
a division, portion, share;
a streak, line, variegated decoration;
a row, series, succession, order;
the being a part of;
that which belongs to or is contained in anything else, an attribute;
predisposition (of body to any disease);
attachment, devotion, fondness for, devotion to (with loc., gen. or ifc.), trust, homage, worship, piety, faith or love or devotion (as a
religious principle or means of salvation, together with karman, ‘works’, and jnana, ‘spiritual knowledge’;
assumption of the form of
Wikipedia
Bhakti in practice signifies an active involvement by the devotee in divine worship. The term is often translated as “devotion”,
though increasingly “participation” is being used as a more accurate rendering, since it conveys a fully engaged relationship with
God. One who practices bhakti is called a bhakta, while bhakti as a spiritual path is referred to as bhakti marga, or the bhakti way.
Bhakti is an important component of many branches of Hinduism, defined differently by various sects and schools.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Bhakti: Devotedness. Derived from the root bhaj, meaning “to meditate constantly on something.” It can either be fully supported
by wisdom (jnana) or be in the form of full surrender to God with no understanding as such. The latter form is known as prapatti. A
devotee is called bhakta.
Nitya. Meditations on the self
Bhakti - The state as well as the act of devotion, In theistic schools, bhakti is defined as intense love of God. In monistic Vedanta,
it is the continuous contemplation of one’s true being or Self.
Nitya. Love and Blessings
Bhakti: Devotion. In conventional usage this refers to religious practices in which emotions have a predominant place. Bhakti was
revalued by Sankara and Narayana Guru as “continuous contemplation on the true nature of the self.”
Descriptions
General
Dasgupta. Hindu Mysticism
The theory of bhakti seems to have its original source in the Pancaratra school of Vaishnavism. However, the doctrine of supreme
self-surrender to Narayana, Hari or Krishna as the one and only God in disregard of all other mythical gods, represents a teach¬
ing of the Gita, the chief work of the Ekanti school of Vaishnavas; and this doctrine forms the universal basis of all kinds of bhakti
worship, though among the Shaktas or Shaivas the supreme deity went by the name of Shakti or Shiva. The Gita plainly teaches,
as we have already pointed out in our previous lecture, that there is no other God but Narayana or Krishna, that He alone is great
and that we should lay aside all other modes of religious worship and take refuge in Him. In Chaitanya this devotion to God devel¬
oped into a life-absorbing passion; yet in all advanced forms of bhakti the chief emphasis is on supreme attachment to God. The
sort of bhakti which Prahlada asked as a boon from Hari was such an attachment for Him as worldly persons have for the objects
of their senses. Such a bhakti, as described in the Bhagavata or the Shandilya sutra, is not worship out of a sense of duty or mere
meditation on God or mere singing of His name, but it is deep affection (anurakti). It is therefore neither knowledge nor any kind
of activity, but is a feeling. And the taking of refuge (prapatti) in God is also not motivated by knowledge but by a deep affection
which impels the individual to take his first and last stay in Him. But though a feeling, this bhakti does not bind anyone to the world.
For the world is but a manifestation of God’s maya, and God so arranges for those who love Him that His maya cannot bind His
bhakta to the world.
But how is such a bhakti possible? For this also we have ultimately to depend on God. There is a passage in the Upanishads
(Katha II. 23) which states that He can be attained by him whom He (God) chooses. This text has often been cited to indicate that
it is only the chosen man of God who has the privilege of possessing a special affection for God. Vallabha declares this special
favor (pushti) of God indispensable for the rise of such an affection for God. He further holds that according to the different de¬
grees of the favor of God one may have different degrees of affection for Him, though by avoiding the commission of sinful actions,
by cleansing the mind of the impurities of worldly passions, and by inclining the mind towards God, one may go a great way in
deserving His special favor. It is only by the highest special favor of God that one’s affection or attachment for Him can become
an all-consuming and all-engulfing passion (vyasana-see the Prameyaratnarnava). True devotion to God, affection or love for
Him, must always be an end in itself and never a means to any other end, not even salvation or liberation, so much praised in the
classical systems of philosophy. This all- absorbing passion for God is the bhakta’s eternal stay in God, and dearer to him than
liberation or any other goal of religious realization.
It is not out of place here to mention that among various Hindu sects it was held that an engrossing passion of any kind may so
possess the whole mind that all other mental functions may temporarily be suspended, and that gradually, through the repeated
occurrence of such a passion, the other mental functions may be altogether annihilated. Thus, absorption in a single supreme
passion may make the mind so one-pointed that all other attachments are transcended and the individual attains Brahmahood
(see the Spandapradipika). In the Upanishads (Brihadaranyaka IV. 3.21) we find that the bliss of Brahman is compared with the
loving embrace of a beloved woman. To love one’s husband and to serve him as a god was regarded from very early times as
the only spiritualizing duty for a woman. Hence the idea that ordinary man-and- woman love may be so perfected as to become a
spiritual force easily won acceptance in certain circles. This man-and-woman love developed an absorbing and dominant passion,
completely independent and unaided by other considerations of marital and parental duties. In its non-marital forms, it was consid¬
ered to be capable of becoming so deep as to become by itself a spiritualizing force. Moreover, it was thought that the transition
from human love to divine love was so easy that a man who had specialized in the experience of deep man-and-woman love of a
non-marital type could easily change the direction of his love from woman to God, and thus indulge in a passionate love for God.
The story is told that in his early career the saint Bilvamangala became so deeply attached to a courtesan named Cintamani that
one night he swam across a river supported by a floating corpse, then scaled a high wall by holding on to the tail of a serpent,
and finally well-nigh broke his limbs in jumping down from the wall into the yard of Cintamani. The woman, however, rebuked him,
saying that if he entertained toward God a little of the love that he had for her he would be a saint. This produced such a wonderful
change in Bilvamangala that he forthwith became a God-intoxicated man. Later, in his saintly life, when he once again felt attract¬
ed by a woman, he plucked out his eyes so that external forms and colors might not further tempt him. This blind saint became
one of the best-reputed among all the saints, devoting his life to the love of God.
Thus there grew up a school of mystics, including the great poet Candidas and others, who devoted themselves to the cultivation
of the spirituality of love and the deification of human love, and who thought that more could be learned through such efforts than
through any other mode of worship. “There is no god or goddess in Heaven who can teach spiritual truths more than the person
whom one loves with the whole heart.” The goddess Basuli whom Candidas worshipped is said to have admonished him to adhere
to his love for the washerwoman Rami, saying that Rami would be able to teach him truths that no one else could, and to lead him
to such bliss as not even the creator himself might do. A somewhat similar idea of the purificatory power of intense human love is
found in the Vishnupurana. In describing the illicit love of a cowherd-girl for Krishna, the Vishnupurana says that at her separation
from him she underwent so much suffering that all her sins were expiated, and that in thinking of him in her separation from him
she had so much delight as would be equal to the collective culmination of all the happiness that she could enjoy as a reward of
her virtuous actions. By the combination of the suffering and the bliss, she exhausted all the fruits of her bad and good deeds, and
thus by her thoughts of Krishna she attained her liberation. Somewhat allied with the idea of human worship, though not of the
man-and-women type just mentioned, is a certain attitude sometimes adopted toward man as a religious teacher. The latter was
considered in many circles as the representative of God on earth, and self- surrender, love and devotion to him was considered to
lead one to God. This sort of worship was prevalent among the Hindus and the Buddhists from pretty early times. One fact should
be noted. It was associated with reverence and a sense of the religious teacher’s superiority, whereas the other type of worship
(through romantic love) raised the man and woman by their constancy and sufferings for each other and the happiness that each
enjoys in the company and thought of the other. In this latter case, love is religion, and all pain endured for the beloved, joy.
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Bhakti (SANSKRIT bhaj, to adore, honor, worship) is a central spiritual path in Hinduism, involving devotion to and service of the
chosen deity. Vedic tradition, the chief religious practice of Hinduism from around 1500 B.C.E. to roughly the start of the Common
Era, relied on a ritual process of chanting and making offerings to various divinities. Compared with the later practice of bhakti,
these divinities were not addressed with intimacy and a sense of connection; furthermore, they were never iconographically rep¬
resented and were not generally visualized in human form; the humanity of the divinity became a very important element in later
bhakti.
... The Sanskrit text the BHAGAVAD GITA, written around 200 B.C.E., was the first true bhakti text in the Indian tradition, in that
case focusing on the worship of KRISHNA. It depicts a very close, personal relationship with God, one with a human form and
personality. However, bhakti is still seen as a restrained, austere practice that takes the form of a YOGA.
As bhakti began to emerge with full force in the extreme south of India beginning in the third century, the devotion to the gods
VISHNU and SHIVA and to the Goddess became a passionate, emotional experience. Devotees such as the poetsaints who
periodically emerged until the 17th or 18th century threw themselves into bhakti with complete abandon. The quintessential dev¬
otee took pride in being considered a mad person and would be often completely lost in ecstatic song and trance. One important
reason why the bhakti movement eventually swept all India and transformed the face of Hinduism was that the songs of the saints
were all in the local dialects and languages, not in the Sanskrit language of the priestly elite. These works were lovingly remem¬
bered and compiled by their followers.
Bhakti often involved PILGRIMAGE to and worship at sacred places where ICONS of the chosen deity could be found. The temple
tradition of India developed on the basis of devotion to deities who took iconic shape in stone in temples the length and breadth of
the country. Devotees yearned to see the deity and to have audience with him or her. This audience is referred to as DARSHAN,
or “viewing,” and is the most special and intimate aspect of the temple visit.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Bhakti (“sharing”) The most common word denoting devotion to God. This is one of the three traditional paths to gain final liber¬
ation of the soul (moksha), and it has been the most widespread type of religious practice for well over a thousand years. The
word’s literal meaning conveys the sense of relationship. On one hand, it refers to an intense and passionate love between dev¬
otee (bhakta) and deity, and on the other, it refers to separate communities of people bound together by their common love of
God. Although references to bhakti can be found in such early texts as the Shvetashvatara Upanishad and the Bhagavad Gita, the
bhakti propounded here is radically different from laterusages. In both these texts, bhakti is presented as a form of yoga in which
one contemplates God as part of a controlled and disciplined practice. This is a far cry from the abandonment and passionate
involvement in later times.
The beginnings of this latter sort of bhakti arose in the Tamil country of deep southern India between the sixth and ninth centuries
B.C.E. It had an intensity that was radically different from earlier notions, a devotional “heat” as opposed to the “coolness” of yoga.
Tamil bhakti expressed, and continues to express, its devotion through songs sung in vernacular languages, conveying an inti¬
mate relationship with a personal god.
... Aside from egalitarianism and personal experience, bhakti worship also stressed community, based on the interconnections
between devotees.
... bhakti’s regional manifestations often take on a distinct flavor marked by, if nothing else, the differing languages. The Padma
Purana speaks of bhakti (a feminine noun) as a maiden who was born in southern India, attained maturity in the state of Maha¬
rashtra, and was rejuvenated in northern India. Although this is a metaphor, it accurately charts the historical diffusion of bhakti
devotion, as well as its changes as it moved north. All forms of bhakti are shaped by specific times, places, and circumstances.
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
“Bhakti”, first meaning partition and participation, and next, being a part of. It is clear therefore why “Bhakti” came to mean attach¬
ment, devotion, worship and love of God.
Wikipedia
Scholarly consensus sees bhakti as a post-Vedic movement that developed primarily during the era of Indian epic poetry. The
Bhagavad Gita is the first text to explicitly use the word “bhakti” to designate a religious path, using it as a term for one of three
possible religious approaches. The Bhagavata Purana develops the idea more elaborately, while the Shvetashvatara Upanishad
evidences a fully developed Shiva-bhakti (devotion to Shiva) and signs of guru- bhakti. An early sutra by Panini (c. 5th century
BCE) is considered by some scholars as the first appearance of the concept of bhakti, where the word “vun” may refer to bhakti
toward “Vasudevarjunabhya” (with implied reference to Krishna Vasudeva). Other scholars question this interpretation.
The Bhakti Movement was a rapid growth of bhakti beginning in Southern India with the Saiva Nayanars (4th- 10th century CE)
and the Vaisnava Alvars (6th-9th century CE) who spread bhakti poetry and devotion throughout India by the 12th-18th century
CE. The Alvars (“those immersed in God”) were Vaishnava poet- saints who wandered from temple to temple singing the praises
of Vishnu. They established temple sites (Srirangam is one) and converted many people to Vaishnavism. Their poems were col¬
lected in the 10th century as the Four Thousand Divine Compositions, which became an influential scripture for the Vaishnavas.
The Bhagavata Purana’s references to the South Indian Alvar saints, along with its emphasis on a more emotional bhakti, have
led many scholars to give it South Indian origins, though there is no definitive evidence of this.
Like the Alvars the Saiva Nayanar poets softened the distinctions of caste and gender. The Tirumurai, a compilation of hymns by
sixty-three Nayanar poets, is still of great importance in South India. Hymns by three of the most prominent poets, Appar (7th cen¬
tury CE), Campantar (7th century) and Cuntarar (9th century), were compiled into the Tevaram, the first volumes of the Tirumurai.
The poets’ itinerant lifestyle helped create temple and pilgrimage sites and spread devotion to Shiva. Early Tamil-Siva bhakti poets
quoted the Black Yajurveda specifically.
By the 12th to 18th centuries, the bhakti movement had spread to all regions and languages of India. Bhakti poetry and attitudes
began to color many aspects of Hindu culture, religious and secular, and became an integral part of Indian society. Prominent
bhakti poets such as Ravidas and Kabir wrote against the hierarchy of caste. It extended its influence to Sufism, Sikhism, Christi¬
anity, and Jainism. Bhakti offered the possibility of religious experience by anyone, anywhere, at any time.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
The highest form of devotion is called bhakti. In Vivekacudamani, Sankara defines bhakti as the continuous contemplation of one’s
true form. And what is our real form? That is what realization is: the apprehension of our own true beingness.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
Reflection on one’s own Self is called bhakti. Bhakti and Self-Enquiry are one and the same. The Self of the Advaitins is the God
of the bhaktas.
Bhakti is being as the Self (Swarupa). One is always that. He realises it by the means he adopts. What is bhakti? To think of God.
That means: only one thought prevails to the exclusion of all other thoughts. That thought is of God which is the Self or it is the
Self surrendered unto God. When He has taken you up nothing will assail you. The absence of thoughts is bhakti.
Sankara tradition
Sankara. Atmabodha, tr. Nikhilananda
Bhakti is single-minded zeal and unswerving passion for the realization of Truth. Without this emotional urge, the aspirant often
becomes lost in the wilderness of dry intellectualism or finds comfort in the ivory tower of a speculative philosophy. He fails to
reach the Goal.
Types of Bhakti
General
Wikipedia
Bhakti emphasises devotion and practice above ritual. Bhakti is typically represented in terms of human relationships, most often
as beloved-lover, friend-friend, parent-child, and master- servant. It may refer to devotion to a spiritual teacher (Guru) as gu-
ru-bhakti, to a personal form of God, or to divinity without form (nirguna). Different traditions of bhakti in Hinduism are sometimes
distinguished, including: Shaivas, who worship Shiva and the gods and goddesses associated with him; Vaishnavas, who worship
forms of Vishnu, his avatars, and others associated with; Shaktas, who worship a variety of goddesses. Belonging to a particular
tradition is not exclusive- devotion to one deity does not preclude worship of another.
Bhavas
Traditional Hinduism speak of five different bhakti bhavas or “affective essences”. Bhavas are different attitudes that a devotee
takes according to his individual temperament to express his devotion towards God in some form. The different bhavas are: San¬
ta, placid love for God; dasya, the attitude of a servant; sakhya, the attitude of a friend; vatsalya, the attitude of a mother towards
her child; and madhura, the attitude of a woman towards her lover. Several saints are known to have practiced these bhavas. The
nineteenth century mystic, Ramakrishna is said to have practiced these five bhavas. The attitude of Hanuman towards lord Rama
is considered to be of dasya bhava. The attitude of Arjuna and the shepherd boys of Vrindavan towards towards Krishna is regard¬
ed as sakhya bhava. The attitude of Radha towards Krishna is regarded as madhura bhava. The attitude of Yashoda, who looked
after Krishna during his childhood is regarded as vatsalya bhava. Caitanya- caritamrta mentions that Mahaprabhu came to distrib¬
ute the four spiritual sentiments of Vraja loka: dasya, sakhya, vatsalya, and sringara. Sringara is the relationship of the intimate
love.
... In Valmiki’s Ramayana, Rama describes the path as ninefold (nava-vidha bhakti):
Such pure devotion is expressed in nine ways, . First is satsang or association with love- intoxicated devotees. The second is to
develop a taste for hearing my nectar-like stories. The third is service to the guru (...) Fourth is to sing my kirtan (communal cho¬
rus) (...) Japa or repetition of my Holy name and chanting my bhajans are the fifth expression (...) To follow scriptural injunctions
always, to practice control of the senses, nobility of character and selfless service, these are expressions of the sixth mode of
bhakti. Seeing me manifested everywhere in this world and worshipping my saints more than myself is the seventh mode of bhak¬
ti. To find no fault with anyone and to be contented with one’s lot is the eighth mode of bhakti. Unreserved surrender with total faith
in my strength is the ninth and highest stage. Shabari, anyone who practices one of these nine modes of my bhakti pleases me
most and reaches me without fail.
The Bhagavata Purana teaches nine similar facets of bhakti, as explained by Prahlada:
(1) sravanaflistening” to the scriptural stories of Krsna and his companions), (2) klrtana (“praising”, usually refers to ecstatic group
singing), (3) smarana (“remembering” or fixing the mind on Visnu), (4) pada-sevana (rendering service), (5) arcana (worshiping
an image), (6) vandana (paying homage), (7) dasya (servitude), (8) sakhya (friendship), and (9) atma-nivedana (self- surrender),
(from Bhagata Purana, 7.5.23-24)
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Bhagavad Gita
15 [Chapter 12]
He who does not disturb (the peace of) the world and (whose peace) is not disturbed by the world, and who is free from exaggera¬
tions of joy, haste and fear, he too is dear to Me.
The neutrality and lack of exaggeration in the attitude of the bhakta (devotee) are referred to here. We know in the Puranas (re¬
ligious legends) and in the Indian scene generally that a great place is given to exaggerated emotionalism, from what might be
called “Lord-Lordism “or “Krishna- Krishnaism” to ecstasies of joy, horripilation or tears, all of which pass under the name of bhakti
(devotion). The Gopis (milk- maids) of Brindavan lost themselves in their love for Krishna, which is another form of popular devo¬
tion in India coming under erotic mysticism. Now, however much such types of emotion may be justified in the context of religious
legends or Puranas, such exaggerated ways of devotion are not at all countenanced in the Gita, as definitely expressed in the
phrase harshamarsha bhayodvegair mukto (free from exaggerations of joy, haste and fear).
Such emotions do have their natural place in the Puranic literature of India, and in some of the texts such as the Narada Bhakti
Sutras and even in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras where there is reference to Isvarapranidhana (worshipping Isvara) as an alternative in
yoga. In Vedantic literature however, bhakti (devotion) is referred to by writers like Sankara in the Viveka Chudamani (verse 31) as
meditation on the Self.
All exaggerations are thus discredited in the Gita and even in the Vishnu Purana as Radhakrishnan quotes in his Introductory
Essay to The Bhagavad Gita (p. 65). Bhaktiratmanusandhanam (devotion is constant meditation on the Self) is also found as a
definition in the Bhakti Darsana (Reality Viewed as Devotion) of Narayana Guru’s Darsana Mala (Garland of Visions of Reali¬
ty). He adds further that bhajatitya yadatmanam bhaktiritya bhidhiyate (from meditating on the Self it is called devotion). Though
dualism between worshipped and worshipper is recognized by Ramanuja and Madhva, they too give the wisdom of the Absolute
an important place in their writings on devotion. Even modern writers like Radhakrishnan who support the idea that the Gita is a
religious classic standing for theism, misunderstand the type of bhakti (devotion) represented in this chapter, and give recognition
to exaggerated forms of devotion belonging to the Puranas and to the context of the erotic mysticism of the milkmaids who fell in
love with Krishna. Radhakrishnan himself admits that such bhakti (devotion) is more natural to women. He writes:
“As a rule the particular qualities associated with bhakti, love and devotion, mercy and tenderness, are to be found more in women
than in men. As bhakti emphasizes humility, obedience readiness to serve, compassion and gentle love, as the devotee longs to
surrender himself, renounce self-will and experience passivity, it is said to be more feminine in character”etc. (p. 61, Introductory
Essay to The Bhagavad Gita).
However much such forms of bhakti (devotion) might find their place in religious legends, we can confidently say that the Gita
discountenances them, as is sufficiently evidenced in this chapter, and especially in this verse which condemns all forms of excite¬
ment or exaggeration. Moreover, in this verse we find the further definition of bhakti, by which it does not stand out in contrast or
relief as something that disturbs the normality of human life. A true bhakta (devotee) effaces his personality to such an extent that
he leaves no mark on his surroundings, and the surroundings on their part take no notice of him.
In India at least, ostentatious forms of devotion, especially collectively practised, often express themselves as disturbing elements
in social life. The love of the Gopis (milkmaids) for Krishna as related in the Bhagavata, none can deny, created some stir in the
life of the simple people of Brindavan judging by the descriptions given. We have only to imagine ourselves questioning Yashodha
and some of the peasant husbands to find out whether the bhakti of the Gopis to Krishna was a disturbing factor to the people or
not! Such devotion cannot therefore be said to fit into the requirements mentioned in this verse.
Ramakrishna tradition
Ramakrishna. Sayings of Sri Ramakrishna
STAGES AND ASPECTS OF BHAKTI
767. Love is of three varieties: unselfish (Samartha), mutual (Samanjasa) and ordinary or selfish (Sadharana). Unselfish love is of
the highest kind. The lover here seeks only the welfare of the beloved, and does not care whether he suffers pains and hardships
thereby. The second kind of love is mutual love in which the lover desires not only the happiness of his beloved, but has an eye to
his own happiness also. Selfish love is the lowest. It makes a man only care for his own happiness without having any regard for
the weal or woe of the beloved.
768. As there are shades of Sattva, Rajas and Tamas in worldliness, so Bhakti has its corresponding aspects. There is one type
of Bhakti that partakes of the humility of Sattva, another that is characterised by the ostentation of Rajas, and a third by the brute
force of Tamas.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
bhakti - from the verb root bhaj = “to love, worship, revere”.
Wikipedia
The Sanskrit noun bhakti is derived from the verb root bhaj, whose meanings include “to share in”, “to belong to”, and “to wor¬
ship”. It also occurs in compounds where it means “being a part of and “that which belongs to or is contained in anything else.”
Bhajan, or devotional singing to God, is also derived from the same root. “Devotion” as an English translation for bhakti doesn’t
fully convey two important aspects of bhakti-the sense of participation that is central to the relationship between the devotee and
God, and the intense feeling that is more typically associated with the word “love”. An advaitic interpretation of bhakti goes beyond
“devotion” to the realization of union with the essential nature of reality as ananda, or divine bliss. Bhakti is sometimes used in the
broader sense of reverence toward a deity or teacher. Bhaktimarga is usually used to describe a bhakti path with complete dedica¬
tion to one form of God.
Related words
Bhakta
Bhakti Yoga
Sanskrit
Bhakti — HfcF'
bhakti -
Nataraja Integrated Science of the Absolute: We have translated the term bhakti as “contemplation”. It is defined by Narayana
Guru as Self-contemplation. Sankara in the Vivekachudamani (Verses 31-32) also defines it as contemplation of the Self. Accord¬
ing to popular usage the term covers many forms of emotional expression and religious devotion. Agony, ecstasy, mystic trance
as well as subnormal and abnormal expressions are also sometimes covered by this term. India is essentially a religious country,
and such manifestations are normal.
Bhakti Yoga
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Bhakti Yoga — ... Yoga of devotion; path to union with God
1. One of the principal paths to liberation. It is of the nature of the supreme love of God. On attaining it, a person becomes perfect,
immortal, and eternally blissful. It is depicts the Divine and human relationship from the human side. (See bhakti.)
2. Vaisnavites say it is of two kinds: formal (which is the lower type dependent upon external aids and depicts a step-by-step pro¬
cess) and real (which knows no rules, involves complete surrender, and is immediate).
3. There are four kinds of devotees: those who, being hard pressed, turn to God for relief; those who, seeking intellectual satisfac¬
tion, love God to know about God; those who love God for rewards; and those who love God for love’s sake alone.
4. There are four states or stages of liberation: salokya (living in land of God), sayujya(being united with God), samTpya (nearness
to God), and sarupya (obtaining same form as God).
Wikipedia
The Bhagavad Gita introduces bhakti yoga in combination with karma yoga and jnana yoga, while the Bhagavata Purana expands
on bhakti yoga, offering nine specific activities for the bhakti yogi. Bhakti in the Bhagavad Gita offered an alternative to two domi¬
nant practices of religion at the time: the isolation of the sannyasin and the practice of religious ritual. Bhakti Yoga is described by
Swami Vivekananda as “the path of systematized devotion for the attainment of union with the Absolute”. In the twelfth chapter of
the Gita Krishna describes bhakti yoga as a path to the highest spiritual attainments. In the ninth chapter, he says,
Fill thy mind with Me, be My devotee, sacrifice unto Me, bow down to Me; thus having made thy heart steadfast in Me, taking Me
as the Supreme Goal, thou shalt come to Me. (B-Gita 9.34)
Shandilya and Narada produced two important Bhakti texts, the Shandilya Bhakti Sutra and Narada Bhakti Sutra. They define
devotion, emphasize its importance and superiority, and classify its forms.
Descriptions
General
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
The Yoga for the emotional plane is Bhakti Yoga. It comprises purification of the emotional life and love urge, leading to devotion
and love of God, and communion with the God of Love.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Bhagavad Gita
Bhagavad Gita Commentary Chapter 12
UNITIVE DEVOTION AND CONTEMPLATION
Bhakti-yoga
A general discussion of devotion on the usual lines has already been covered in the latter part of the last chapter. Here an import¬
ant doubt is raised by Arjuna in regard to two possible kinds of devotion implied in what till now was just called bhakti (devotion).
We know that in the rational, heterodox or Buddhistic tradition bhakti (devotion) to a personal god was greatly discredited. The
Gita being a revaluation of both orthodox and heterodox tendencies in spirituality, covering both the rational and the emotional
aspects, has to make it clear what importance it gives to the role of devotion in the spiritual progress of the aspirant to wisdom.
Further, the variety of bipolar relationship which in the Gita is called devotion conforms more to a contemplative discipline rather
than to religious worship.
We have seen that the more ordinary approaches to devotion have been revalued or superseded in xi, 48 and 53. Discredit on Ve-
dism generally was reflected even in ii, 42, 43, 44 and 46. Brahma as a deity to be worshipped was superseded in xi, 37. There is
no mistaking therefore, that when devotion is referred to in this chapter, the usual forms of upasana (devout worship through ritual,
offerings of flowers, etc.) or even popular forms of devotion, are not implied. The word contemplation rather than devotion would
apply more especially to the type of spirituality of the person implied in verses 13-19 inclusive.
Further a bhakta (devotee) is portrayed as a detached and dispassionate individual, and wisdom is still his higher goal, as indicat¬
ed even in verse 12 of this chapter. The attitude of a devotee here shows the same traits of a yogi such as balance between op¬
posites like pleasure-pain, etc., as also found in other parts of the Gita. The only question that is discussed in this chapter, which
is of particular interest to the author Vyasa, consists in the difference between a devotee who thinks of the Absolute as a person,
which might cover even the personification of a principle; or the devotee who regards the Absolute in a more theoretical or philo¬
sophical manner.
Krishna here votes definitely for the personal, as far as a yogi is concerned, but the chapter contains verses which do recognize
the superiority of a person capable of accomplishing the more difficult task of contemplating the Absolute in a more abstract philo¬
sophical manner. The attributes of the Absolute in the latter case have to attain a certain globality. Component factors must have
an organic coherence, thus tending to constitute in their totality a unitive value, and such a value must be contemplated upon in a
bipolar manner. This bipolarity, as we have said, is the mystical way which is not different from that of yoga or contemplation. The
conditions are not consciously fulfilled by rationalists when they think of the Absolute impersonally. If their contemplation fulfils
these requirements the devotion gains a superior status, as stated in verses 3 and 4. It is only just, therefore, that there is here in
verse 5 an apologetic reference to the difficulty facing a man who wants to affiliate himself to the Absolute through mere abstrac¬
tions.
... This verse [Chapter 12, verse 12] brings the subject of devotion further in line with the discipline of yoga or contemplation as
understood in other chapters. Devotion or practice in the Gita are not to be confused with indications in such texts as the Narada
Bhakti Sutras and Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras, which should be looked upon as distinct darsanas (systematic visions of reality) of their
own with very little in common with the pure contemplation of the Absolute which is implied in this chapter. These darsanas have
been revalued here.
See: Bhakta and Bhakti-yoga
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Bhakti Yoga - from the verb root bhaj = “to share in,” “to belong to,” “to worship”.
Wikipedia
The Sanskrit noun bhakti is derived from the verb root bhaj, whose meanings include “to share in”, “to belong to”, and “to wor¬
ship”. It also occurs in compounds where it means “being a part of and “that which belongs to or is contained in anything else.”
Bhajan, or devotional singing to God, is also derived from the same root. “Devotion” as an English translation for bhakti doesn’t
fully convey two important aspects of bhakti—the sense of participation that is central to the relationship between the devotee and
God, and the intense feeling that is more typically associated with the word “love”. An advaitic interpretation of bhakti goes beyond
“devotion” to the realization of union with the essential nature of reality as ananda, or divine bliss. Bhakti is sometimes used in the
broader sense of reverence toward a deity or teacher. Bhaktimarga is usually used to describe a bhakti path with complete dedica¬
tion to one form of God.
Related words
Bhagavat Gita
Bhakti Yoga - in Wikipedia : Bhagavat Gita
Bhakta
Yoga
Sanskrit
Bhakti Yorq —
Bhakti Yoga -
Bhava
Variant spellings
bhava
bhava
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Bhava — ... state of being; existence; emotion; feeling; attitude;
1. Existence: That from which everything comes.
2. One of the twelve links in the causal chain of existence, according to Buddhism.
3. Becoming or a state of flux.
4. A feeling of absorption or identification. A spiritual attitude.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
bhava -
becoming, being, existing, occurring, appearance;
turning or transition into;
continuance (opp. to cessation; state, condition,
rank;
true condition or state, truth, reality;
manner of being, nature, temperament, character; manner of acting, conduct, behaviour;
any state of mind or body, way of thinking or feeling, sentiment, opinion, disposition, intention;
passion, emotion;
conjecture, supposition;
purport, meaning, sense;
love, affection, attachment;
the seat of the feelings or affections, heart, soul, mind;
that which is or exists, thing or substance, being or living creature;
a discreet or learned man (as a term of address = respected sir);
(in astron.) the state or condition of a planet;
an astrological house or lunar mansion;
(in gram.) the fundamental notion of the verb, the sense conveyed by the abstract noun (esp. as a term for an impersonal passive
or neuter verb having neither agent nor object expressed e.g. pacyate, ‘there is cooking’ or ‘cooking is going on’);
wanton sport, dalliance;
birth;
place of birth, the womb;
the world, universe;
an organ of sense;
superhuman power;
the Supreme Being;
advice, instruction;
contemplation, meditation
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Bhava - becoming, being, existing, occurring, appeared.
Wikipedia
“Bhava” is the Sanskrit word for “feeling”, “emotion”, “mood” or “devotional state of mind”. “Bhava” denotes the mood of ecstasy
and self-surrender and the channelling of emotional energies that is induced by the maturing of devotion to one’s ‘Ishta deva’
(object of devotion). Bhava is also the Pali word for “becoming” in the sense of ‘ongoing worldly existence’, from the root bhG “to
become”.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Meditations on the self
Bhava - Any state, particularly of the mind. Often used to refer to the passing or fluctuating moods of emotion to which people are
exposed.
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Bhava - Any transient form the eternal Reality (sat) assumes. Without a bhava, sat never exists, neither can any bhava be there
without sat existing.
Descriptions
General
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Bhavas (“states”) In Indian aesthetics the bhavas are a set of nine states considered the most basic unadulterated emotions: sex¬
ual excitement, laughter, grief, anger, energy, fear, loathing, wonder, and peace. To these nine bhavas correspond the nine rasas
(“tastes”), or moods transmitted by various types of artistic expression: the erotic, comic, compassionate, cruel, heroic, terrifying,
loathsome, marvelous, and peaceful. Although these bhavas and rasas clearly correspond to one another, there is an important
difference between them. A person’s emotive states come and go in response to circumstances that are often beyond one’s con¬
trol. Because such naturally occurring emotions usually cannot be sustained, they are generally not objects of aesthetic satisfac¬
tion. This is not true in the case of rasa, since mood can be artificially generated by an artistic endeavor. Any particular rasa can
thus be sustained and satisfying. The single most dominant aim in all the Indian arts, therefore, is to create such a mood or moods
for the audience.
Sivananda tradition
Sivananda. All about Hinduism
A philanthropist donates big sums to social institutions. He regards this as some kind of social service only. That is all. He has not
got the Bhava or mental attitude, that the whole world is a manifestation of the Lord and that he is serving the Lord. He has not got
the Bhava that the Lord is working through his instruments or senses, that every act is an offering unto the Lord, and that every
deed is a Yogic activity.
Nimitta Bhava (attitude that one is an instrument in the hands of God)
Sakshi Bhava (attitude that one is silent witness of the actions of the senses and of the mind).
Ramakrishna tradition
Ramakrishna. The gospel of Sri Ramakrishna
“First of all one acquires bhakti. Bhakti is single-minded devotion to God, like the devotion a wife feels for her husband. It is very
difficult to have unalloyed devotion to God. Through such devotion one’s mind and soul merge in Him.
“Then comes bhava, intense love. Through bhava a man becomes speechless. His nerve currents are stilled. Kumbhaka comes
by itself. It is like the case of a man whose breath and speech stop when he fires a gun.”
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
bhava - from the verb root bhG = “to become, exist”.
Related words
Abhava
Sanskrit
Bhava — moT
bhava - 'AR
Bhokta
Variant spellings
bhokta
bhokta
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Bhokta — ... enjoyer; subject; experiencer
Descriptions
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Integrated Science of the Absolute
Nature, into which all men are born, when treated as a global datum, has two aspects. One can be characterized objectively as
“made for man”, and the other, its reciprocal opposite, refers subjectively to “man as its enjoyer”. These two are distinguished
respectively by the technical term often employed in Vedantic literature: Viz. bhogya (something to be enjoyed or appreciated as
having value-significance), and its natural and inevitable dialectical counterpart bhokta (the enjoyer) which is the subject repre¬
sented in the Self.
Ramakrishna tradition
Nirmalananda. A Commentary on the Upanishads
... the upanishadic verse continues: “The wise call the Self the enjoyer when he is united with the body, the senses, and the mind.”
We certainly do not enjoy a great deal of our experiences in/through the body, so perhaps a better translation of bhokta is “expe¬
riencer” rather than enjoyer.
See also:
Ajnana, avarana, vikshepa
Related words
Jiva
Jnata
Karta
Kshetrajna
Purusa
Sanskrit
Bhokta — Plmi
bhokta - Vl'Tytl
Bhumi
Variant spellings
bhumi
bhumi
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
bhumi -
the earth, soil, ground;
a territory, country, district;
a place, situation;
position, posture, attitude;
the part or personification (played by an actor);
the, floor of a house, story;
the base of any geometrical figure;
(metaph.) a step, degree, stage;
Yogas (with Buddhists there are 10 or 13 stages of existence or perfection);
extent, limit;
a matter, subject, object, receptacle i.e. fit object or person for;
the tongue
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Bhumi: Another name for the Earth.
Descriptions
General
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
Bhumi is the earth, the world of everyday life.
See also:
in Mahabhutas: Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
Related words
Prithivi
Sanskrit
Bhumi —
(\
bhumi - trD
Bhuta
Variant spellings
bhuta
bhuta
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
BhGta — ... element; gross elemental principle
1. That is, the five elements: earth (ksitiorprthivl), water (ap), fire (tejas), air (vayu), space (akasa).
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
bhuta -
become, been, gone, past (n. the past);
actually happened, true, real (n. an actual occurrence, fact, matter of fact, reality);
existing, present;
being or being like anything, consisting of, mixed or joined with;
purified;
obtained;
fit, proper;
a son, child;
a great devotee or ascetic;
N. of Siva;
that which is or exists, any living being (divine, human, animal, and even vegetable), the world;
a spirit (good or evil), the ghost of a deceased person, a demon, imp, goblin;
an element, one of the 5 elements (esp. a gross element, but also a subtle element;
N. of the number ‘five’;
well-being, welfare, prosperity
Dictionary - Runes
Bhuta: (Skr. become) The “has-become”, or the ultimate element or concrete thing as it has evolved from the abstract, metaphysi¬
cal unity through a process of infinite particularization and limitation. K.F.L.
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Bhuta - one of the five gross elements (mahabhutas) as perceived by the senses.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Bhuta: That which has come into being.
Descriptions
General
Hiriyanna. Outlines of Indian philosophy
In the inorganic realm, the Upanisads recognize five fundamental elements (bhutas) termed prthivi (earth), ap (water), tejas (fire),
vayu (air) and akasa (ether). All the five were not known from the beginning. ‘Water’ seems to have been the sole element thought
of at first. The next stage of advance is marked by the recognition of three elements, earth, water and fire, as in the Chandogya
Upanisad, which are stated to emerge from Brahman in the reverse order. They correspond roughly to the solid, fluid and gaseous
phases of the material universe. The last stage in the evolution of this thought, which was final and was accepted by practically
all the later philosophers of India, was reached when the number of the so-called elements was raised to five by the addition of
air and ether. It is clear that in this its last form the classification is connected with the five-fold character of the sensory organs,
whose distinctive objects, viz. odour, flavour, colour, temperature and sound, are respectively the distinctive features of earth, wa¬
ter, fire, air and ether. But these elements, it should be remembered, are subtle or rudimentary (suksma-bhuta). Out of these are
made the gross ones (sthula-bhGta), each of which contains an admixture of the other four, but gets its name as a compound from
the element predominating in it. The gross elements are what we find in nature; and strictly it is they that are to be understood by
the terms prthivi, ap, etc., the corresponding subtle elements being known as prthvT-matra, apo-matra, etc.
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
Hindu tradition calls the Elements the Bhutas or Mahabhutas. Apart from “Element”, the word Bhuta means furthermore “ele¬
mental, nature-spirit, ghost,” and is also applied to “any creature”. It also means “material substance”. All these things are indeed
implied in the real meaning of “Elemental”. The Hindu Bhuta-yajna or “sacrifice to Bhutas” is traditionally said to include Gods
(Devas), ancestors (Pitris), animals, birds, worms and other creatures.
... the word Bhuta has a wide meaning, including elements, elementals, nature spirits, ghosts, animals and all creatures.
Muller. The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy
The five Tanmatras (of sound, touch, light, taste, and smell) are called Bhuta (elements), and the five Mahabhutas (gross ele¬
ments) also are called Bhuta. Then the aggregate of all these is called >S’arTra, body, and he who dwells in that body is called
Bhutatman (the elementary Atman).
Bhuta and mahabhuta
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Bhutas are those entities that have come to be; the mahabhutas, the great elements, is the term applied to those elements in their
universal aspect as fundamental principles in the creation or phenomenal emergence of the visible world.
Bhutas and tanmatras
Ramakrishna tradition
Vivekananda. The science and philosophy of religion
... the grossest elements are the bhutas, but that all gross things are the results of fine ones. Everything that is gross is composed
of a combination of fine things, so the bhutas must be composed of certain fine particles, called in Sanskrit the tanmalras.
Bhuta linga
General
lllustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
... bhutalingas (“elemental lingas”), a network of five southern Indian sites sacred to Shiva. In each of these sites Shiva is repre¬
sented as a linga, the pillar-shaped object that is his symbolic form, and at each site the linga is believed to be formed from one of
the five primordial elements (bhuta)-earth, wind, fire, water, and space (akasha).
See also: Evolution of prakriti (Sankhya)
Etymology
General
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Bhuta - past, pass, participle of the root bhu, to become, be.
Related words
Mahabhuta
Tanmatras
Sanskrit
Bhuta — MrT
(X
bhGta -
Bhutadi
Variant spellings
bhutadi
bhutadi
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Bhutadi — ... the state where inertia (tamas) predominates over purity (sattva) and activity (rajas).
1. From this state evolve the subtle elements (tanmatra) according to Sankhya.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
bhutadi -
‘original or originator of all beings’, N. of Maha-purusha or the Supreme Spirit;
(in Sarhkhya) N. of aharh-kara (as the principle from which the elements are evolved)
Descriptions
General
Dasgupta. A history of Indian philosophy
The bhutadi ... represents only the intermediate stage through which the differentiations and regroupings of tamas reals in the ma-
hat proceed for the generation of the tanmatras. ... Bhutadi is absolutely homogeneous and inert, devoid of all physical and chemi¬
cal characters except quantum or mass.
See also:
tamasa (bhutadi) tanmatras
Evolution of tanmatras
in Mahabhutas: Dasgupta. A history of Indian philosophy
Evolution of prakriti (Sankhya)
Related words
Tamas
Tanmatra
Sanskrit
Bhutadi — KrTTfc
bhGtadi - ^ikD
Brahma
Variant spellings
Brahma
brahma
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Brahma — ... the creator of the universe; one of the Indian trinity comprised of Brahma, Visnu, and Rudra; priest
1. The Absolute Reality manifested as the active creator of the universe, who is personifed as one of the three gods of the Hindu
trinity. The other two are Visnu, who represents the principle of sustenance, and Siva, who represents the principle of destruction.
2. One of the four principal priests in a Vedic sacrifice (the others being Hotri, adhvaryu, udgatri). The brahma priest, the most
learned of the four, was required to know the three Vedas, supervise the sacrifice, and set right mistakes committed by the other
priests.
Dictionary - Runes
Brahma: (Skr.) The creator or creative principle of the universe, main figure of the Hindu trinity (see Trimurti). K.F.L.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Brahma is the first member of the Trimurti, the “three forms” of divinity made up of the dominant male deities in the Hindu panthe¬
on: Brahma as the creator of the universe, Vishnu as the preserver or sustainer, and Shiva as the destroyer. Brahma is usually
portrayed with four heads (the fifth having been cut off by Bhairava, a wrathful form of Shiva), and his animal vehicle is the hamsa,
or Indian goose.
Wikipedia
Brahma is the Hindu god (deva) of creation and one of the Trimurti, the others being Vishnu and Shiva. According to the Brahma
Purana, he is the father of Manu, and from Manu all Hindus are descended. In the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, he is often
referred to as the progenitor or great grandsire of all human beings. He is not to be confused with the Supreme Cosmic Spirit in
Hindu Vedanta philosophy known as Brahman, which is genderless. Brahma’s consort is Savitri and Gayatri. Saraswati sits beside
him, the goddess of learning. Brahma is often identified with Prajapati, a Vedic deity.
Sankara tradition
Sankara. Atmabodha, tr. Nikhilananda
Brahma—The highest god, the personified Cosmic Soul.
... The Creator God; the First Person of the Hindu Trinity, the other two being Visnu and Siva.
Descriptions
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Brahma is a divinity who makes his appearance in the post-Vedic Indian epics (c. 700 B.C.E.-100 C.E.). He has an important role
in the stories of the great gods in the epics and PURANAS. He is often listed in a trinity alongside Vishnu and Shiva, where Brah¬
ma is the creator god, Vishnu is the sustainer of the world, and Shiva is the destroyer of the world. Brahma is generally considered
the creator of the universe, but there are many different accounts of this act within Indian mythology; in fact, some stories credit
other divinities or entities with the creation.
Unlike the other two members of the trinity (and to a lesser extent the Great Goddess), Brahma has never had a wide following of
exclusive devotees. There are only two temples in all of India devoted solely to Brahma; one is at PUSHKARA Lake near Ajmer in
Rajasthan and the other is near Idar, on the border between Rajasthan and Gujarat. Brahma is born in the lotus that emerges from
Vishnu’s navel as he lies on the primordial MILK OCEAN. In this image he is the creator god, but still quite subsidiary to VISHNU.
Iconographically Brahma’s vehicle is the swan (Indian goose). Brahma’s wife is SARASVATI, the goddess of the arts and learning.
He is depicted carrying a vessel that pours water, prayer beads, and sometimes the VEDAS.
Brahma is always depicted as having four heads. The story is told that he was once in the midst of extended austerities in order
to gain the throne of Indra, king of the gods, when the latter sent a celestial dancing girl, Tilottama, to disturb him. Not wanting
to move from his meditative position, when Tilottama appeared to his right, he produced a face on his right; when she appeared
behind him, he produced a face behind his head; when she appeared at his left, he produced a face on the left, and when she ap¬
peared above him he produced a face above. When SHIVA saw this five- headed Brahma he scolded him for his lust and pinched
off his head looking upward, leaving Brahma humiliated and with only four heads. He did not attain the role of king of the gods.
There are a great many stories about Brahma in Indian mythology. Most commonly he is known as a boon giver who was required
to grant magical powers as a reward for ascetics, whether animal, human, god, or demon. Often these beings, ascetics, gods, and
the like would become problems for the gods when they became too powerful.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Brahma is a major figure in the pantheon and is prominent in many episodes in Hindu mythology. His mythic presence often ob¬
scures the fact that he is never worshiped as a primary deity. In fact, he has only one temple devoted to him in all of India, in
Pushkar. Some Hindus have attributed this lack of worship to his status as the creator. After all, since creation has been complet¬
ed, why should one bother with Brahma, whose work is done? In the puranas, texts on Hindu mythology, this lack of worship is
usually ascribed to a curse-sometimes by the god Shiva but in other stories by the sage Bhrgu.
Wikipedia
Attributes
At the beginning of the process of creation, Brahma created eleven Prajapatis (used in another sense), who are believed to be the
fathers of the human race. The Manusmriti enumerates them as Marici, Atri, Angiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratuj, Vashishta, Prace-
tas or Daksha, Bhrigu, and Narada. He is also said to have created the seven great sages or the Saptarishi to help him create the
universe. However since all these sons of his were born out of his mind rather than body, they are called Manas Putras or mind-
sons or spirits.
Within Vedic and Puranic scripture Brahma is described as only occasionally interfering in the affairs of the other devas (gods),
and even more rarely in mortal affairs. He did force Soma to give Tara back to her husband, Brihaspati. He is considered the fa¬
ther of Dharma and Atri.
Creation
According to the Puranas, Brahma is self-born (without mother) in the lotus flower. Another legend says that Brahma was born
in water. A seed that later became the golden egg. From this golden egg, Brahma the creator was born, as Hiranyagarbha. The
remaining materials of this golden egg expanded into the Brahm-anda or Universe. Being born in water, Brahma is also called
Kanja (born in water). Brahma is said also to be the son of the Supreme Being, Brahman, and the female energy known as Prakrti
or Maya.
The image depiction displaying the connection by lotus between Brahma and Vishnu can also be taken as a symbolism for the
primordial fetus and primordial placenta. The placenta is generated upon conception, but only the fetus continues into the world
afterward. Likewise, Brahma is involved in creation, but Vishnu continues thereafter.
Lack of Brahma worship in India
Although Brahma is one of the three major gods in Hinduism, few Hindus actually worship him. Today, India has very few temples
dedicated to Brahma, as opposed to the tens of thousands of temples dedicated to the other deities in the Trimurti, namely Vishnu
and Shiva. Among the few that exist today, the most famous is the temple in Pushkar in Rajasthan. Others include one in Thiruna-
vaya in Kerala; one in the temple town of Kumbakonam, (Thanjavur District) in Tamil Nadu; another in Kodumudi, Erode district,
Tamil Nadu; Nerur village in Kudal taluka of Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra ; one in Asotra village in Balotra taluka of Barmer
district in Rajasthan known as Kheteshwara Brahmadham Tirtha; one in Brahma-Karmali village in Sattari Taluka in Goa; one in
Khedbrahma in Gujarat; and one in the village of Khokhan in the Kullu Valley, 4 km from Bhuntar. Regular pujas are held for Lord
Brahma at the temple in Thirunavaya, and during Navaratri the temple comes to life with colourful festivities. Another temple for
Lord Brahma, Sri Brahmapureeswarar Temple is located at Thirupattur, near Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu, South India. The idol of
Lord Brahma is fully covered with turmeric everyday morning. This temple also has the Samadhi for Sage Patanjali and the nearby
Kasi Vishwanathar Temple in the same temple complex has a Samadhi for Sage Vyakrapatha.
Various stories in Hindu mythology talk about curses that have supposedly prevented Brahma from being worshiped on Earth. In¬
terestingly, the Bhavishya Purana states that, certain ‘daityas’ or demons had begun to worship Brahma and therefore the ‘devas’
of heaven could not defeat them. In order to mislead the daityas from the worship of Brahma, Vishnu appeared on Earth, as Bud¬
dha and Mahavira. With various arguments he convinced the daityas to leave the worship of Brahma. Having left the worship of
Brahma, the daityas lost power and were hence defeated. The Bhavishya Purana lays out that altogether, giving up the worship of
Brahma, was unacceptable in Hindu religion. This is because Brahma signifies a personification of Brahman (God) or is a manifes¬
tation of Brahman (God).
According to a story in the Shiva Purana (dedicated to Lord Shiva), at the beginning of time in Cosmos, Vishnu and Brahma ap¬
proached a huge Shiva linga and set out to find its beginning and end. Vishnu was appointed to seek the end and Brahma the
beginning. Taking the form of a boar, Vishnu began digging downwards into the earth, while Brahma took the form of a swan and
began flying upwards. However, neither could find His appointed destination. Vishnu, satisfied, came up to Shiva and bowed down
to him as a swarupa of Brahman. Brahma did not give up so easily. As He was going up, he saw a ketaki flower, dear to Shiva.
His ego forced him to ask the flower to bear false witness about Brahma’s discovery of Shiva’s beginning. When Brahma told his
tale, Shiva, the all-knowing, was angered by the former’s ego. Shiva thus cursed him that no being in the three worlds will worship
him.
A depiction of Khambhavati Ragini, A lady worshiping Brahma
According to another legend, Brahma is not worshiped because of a curse by the great sage Brahmarishi Bhrigu. The high priest
Bhrigu was organising a great fire-sacrifice (yajna) on Earth. It was decided that the greatest among all Gods would be made the
presiding deity. Bhrigu then set off to find the greatest among the Trimurti. When he went to Brahma, the god was so immersed in
the music played by Saraswati that he could hardly hear Bhrigu’s calls. The enraged Bhrigu then cursed Brahma that no person
on Earth would ever invoke him or worship him again.
In the Brahma Purana and Hindu cosmology, Brahma is regarded as the creator but not necessarily as God. Rather, He is regard¬
ed as a creation of God / Brahman. The lifespan of Brahma is 100 Brahma years, equivalent to 311,040,000,000,000 solar years
(311 trillion and 40 billion earth years). At the end of His lifespan, there will be a gap of 100 Brahma years, after which another
Brahma or creator will begin the process of creation anew. This cycle is thought to repeat without end.
Appearance
The complexion of Lord Brahma is red. He is clad in red clothes. Brahma is traditionally depicted with four heads, four faces, and
four arms. With each head, He continually recites one of the four Vedas. He is often depicted with a white beard (especially in
North India), indicating the nearly eternal nature of his existence. Unlike most other Hindu Gods, Brahma holds no weapons. One
of His hands holds a scepter in the form of a spoon, which is associated with the pouring of holy ghee or oil onto a sacrificial pyre,
signifying Brahma as the lord of sacrifices. Another of His hands holds a ‘kamandalu’- a jar made of metal or even coconut shell,
containing water. The water in this jar signifies the initial, all-encompassing ether in which the first element of creation evolved.
Brahma also holds a string of prayer beads called the ‘akshamala’ (literally “garland of eyes”), which He uses to keep track of the
Universe’s time. He is also shown holding the Vedas and, sometimes, a lotus flower.
Another story in connection with Brahma’s four heads is that when Brahma was creating the Universe, He made a female deity
known as Shatarupa (one with a hundred beautiful forms). Brahma became immediately infatuated with Her. Shatarupa moved
in various directions to avoid the gaze of Brahma. But wherever She went, Brahma developed a head. Thus, Brahma developed
five heads, one on each side and one above the others. In order to control Brahma, Shiva cut off one of the heads. Also, Shiva
felt that Shatarupa was Brahma’s daughter, having been created by Him. Therefore, Shiva determined it was wrong for Brahma to
become obsessed with Her. Shiva directed that there be no proper worship on earth for the “unholy” Brahma. Thus, only Vishnu
and Shiva continued to be worshiped, while Brahma is almost totally ignored. Ever since this incident, Brahma has been believed
to be reciting the four Vedas in His attempt at repentance. However, there are many other stories in the Puranas about the gradual
decrease Lord Brahma’s importance, such as in the Shiva Purana. The omission of Brahma from most temples regarding worship
is a serious concern in the orthopraxis of Hinduism. Ignoring the Supreme Creator also sidelines the importance of Saraswati, the
goddess of learning, in temples.
Symbols
The Four Hands - Brahma’s four arms represent the four cardinal directions: east, south, west, and north. The back right hand
represents mind, the back left hand represents intellect, the front right hand is ego, and the front left hand is self-confidence.
The Rosary - Symbolizes the substances used in the process of creation.
The Book - The book symbolizes knowledge.
The Gold - Gold symbolizes activity; the golden face of Brahma indicates that He is actively involved in the process of creating the
Universe.
The Swan - The swan is the symbol of grace and discernment. Brahma uses the swan as his vahana, or his carrier or vehicle.
The Crown - Lord Brahma’s crown indicates His supreme authority.
The Lotus - The lotus symbolizes nature and the living essence of all things and beings in the Universe.
The Beard - Brahma’s black or white beard denotes wisdom and the eternal process of creation.
The Four Faces - The four Vedas (Rik, Sama, Yajuh and Atharva). The Vedas Symbolises his four faces, heads and arms.
Vehicle
Brahma’s vehicle is a divine Swan. This divine bird is bestowed with a virtue called Neera-Ksheera Viveka, or the ability to sepa¬
rate milk and water from a mixture of the two. The swan signifies that all creatures deserve justice, however entwined they might
be in challenging situations. Also, this virtue indicates that one should learn to separate the good from the bad, accepting that
which is valuable and discarding what is worthless.
Temples
Though almost all Hindu religious rites involve prayer to Brahma, very few temples are dedicated to His worship. Among the most
prominent is the Brahma temple at Pushkar. Once a year, on Kartik Poornima, the full moon night of the Hindu lunar month of Kar-
tik (October - November), a religious festival is held in Brahma’s honour. Thousands of pilgrims come to bathe in the holy Pushkar
Lake adjacent to the temple.
Temples to Brahma also exist in Thirunavaya in Kerala; in the temple town of Kumbakonam in the Thanjavur District of Tamil
Nadu; in Kodumudi, Tamil Nadu;in Asotra village in Balotra taluka of Rajasthan’s Barmer district, known as Kheteshwar Brahmad-
ham Tirtha; and in Goa, in the small, remote village of Carambolim in the Sattari Taluka in the northeast region of the state. Reg¬
ular pujas are held for Lord Brahma at the temple in Thirunavaya, and during Navrathris this temple comes to life with colourful
festivities. There is also a shrine for Brahma within the Brahmapureeswarar Temple in Thirupatur, near Trichy, and a famous murti
of Brahma exists at Mangalwedha, 52 km from the Solapur district of Maharashtra. Statues of Brahma may be found in Khedbrah-
ma, Gujarat, and in Sopara near Mumbai. There is a temple dedicated to Lord Brahma in the temple town of Sri Kalahasti near
Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh. The largest and most famous shrine to Lord Brahma may be found in Cambodia’s Angkor Wat. There
is a statue of Brahma at the Erawan Shrine in Bangkok. The golden dome of the Government House of Thailand also contains a
statue of Phra Phrom(Thai representation of Brahma).
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Dialectics
Brahma is more of a cosmological deity and is given a relativistic position only, as seated in a lotus arising from the navel of the
reclining Vishnu... Brahma as a god has four (sometimes five) faces looking at the four directions (and above). As a member of
this trio of divinities (Trimurti), his status would be fully absolute only if we should treat this God as representing the Vedas, or as
the Golden Germ of Creation (hiranya-garbha), which is still only the lower aspect of the Absolute, with its own higher dialectical
counterpart, para-brahman, which is not a deity, but is in the neuter gender and stands for the neutral Vedantic Absolute. The term
sabda (verbal) Brahma is said to refer to the Vedas, but the philosopher who seeks the Absolute is said to transcend this Brahma
of the Vedas by his sheer interest in pure Absolutist wisdom, as stated in the Bhagavad Gita (vi, 44), the relevant part of which
verse reads:
“By merely being one desirous of yoga (dialectical wisdom) one transcends (the domain of) the articulated (Vedic) aspect of Brah¬
ma (as a god).”
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
The Indian mythological personification of the Creator is called Brahma, who gathers the dust of the feet of the mother of creation.
This dust is the existence that can become manifested in the various individuated forms, and the awareness of this individuation
brings about interaction between one created being and another. We see creation exemplified at many levels. At the chemical
level, it may be seen in molecular functions, chemical combinations, and various forms of synthesis. At the physical level, matter
is patterned and directed by gravitational and electromagnetic fields and thermodynamics. On the psychological level, creation is
revealed through our mutual attractions and repulsions.
The three qualities, or gunas-sattva, rajas and tamas-are necessary for any creation. Sattva, the transparent, is the capacity to
clearly represent existence. Rajas is kinetic, dynamic, activating- the energy that does the making and unmaking. Tamas rep¬
resents the inertial force that stabilizes and solidifies creation. According to the legend, the Creator uses the three gunas to create
the whole world. If you philosophically understand the process, you don’t have to think of any external creator. Our mind is the
creator. It has the ability to present anything to itself. When something is presented and experienced, it exists. Thus, the mind cre¬
ates forms of existence, one after another.
After creating the existence of something, the mind assumes the role of the seer, with the creation as the seen. An interaction is
unleashed between the seer and the seen. Then the mind thinks, “ I am the knower.” After developing an affection for the known
or the seen, it perceives “ I am the enjoyer.” Yet it is all the same mind. There is an ego center which measures the situation, eval¬
uates it, and says “ I am its knower, I am its enjoyer. I am seeking enjoyment. I know what is pleasurable which is not yet present.
I want to actualize it.” Here the same ego assumes one more position, that of an actor. “ I am the seer; I am the actor; I am the
enjoyer.” When all three of these come together, we are in a single world of interest. A world of interest remains sometimes for
only five seconds, sometimes for two minutes, sometimes for the whole day, a few days, months, or even years. Its length varies,
but we go from one world of interest to another in a continuous series. This is allegorically portrayed in Sankara’s Saundarya La-
hari as the several worlds created out of the three gunas by Brahma. When we understand it in our own life, our mind is a creator
which goes on taking these three modalities and making world after world.
... In the Yoga Vasistha is a story of a man who had ten sons. They decided to meditate on Brahma. It is said that what you med¬
itate on, that you become. Here, Brahma means the Creator. When the ten boys started meditating, their identification with the
Creator was such that each created his own world. Another boy came and confronted one of these Brahmas. He showed a kind
of maturity which was beyond his age, and he was chastising him. The Brahma wanted to know where he got the authority to
come and speak so to an elder person. The boy answered, “ I know not only you as Brahma, but also all the previous Brahmas.”
He added that it takes four catur yugas, four great eons of several million years each, to make one cycle of time. That one cycle is
when Brahma is keeping his eyes open. When he closes his eyes there comes the great dissolution of everything. Creation starts
when he again opens his eyes. One opening and one closing together make one day. Three hundred and sixty such days make a
year of Brahma. Only after a thousand such years does one Brahma go. The boy was saying, “ This Brahma who is sitting here is
one of the recent ones. There have been so many already!” He knew them all.
Brahma and Brahman
General
Lurker. Dictionary of Gods
[Brahma] is properly the masculine form of the Sanskrit word brahman, and it designates the personification of Brahman in Indian
religion.
... Brahman - Sanskrit neuter noun.
Muller. The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy
We ourselves also, that is the individual souls, can be in full reality nothing but Brahman, though for a while we are divided from it,
because forgetful of Brahman through Avidya. While that state of Avklya lasts the true Brahman, neuter, may become to us Brah¬
ma, masculine, may become the creator and ruler of the world, and, as such, receive worship from his creatures. But as soon as
the cloud of. Avidya is lifted, this creator also recedes and is restored at once to his true state and dignity. He, the so-called Isvara,
or Lord, or Creator, becomes what he is and always has been, the whole Brahman; and we ourselves also remember and thereby
recover our true Brahmahood, or Selfhood, not as if we had ever been divided from it, but only as having been blinded for a while
by Avidya so as to forget ourselves, our true Self, that is Brahman.
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
... the term Brahma is frequently used instead of Brahman. This form is the nominative neuter ending and is used to indicate the
One Universal Soul or divine essence and source from which all created things emanate and to which they return. It is the Self-ex¬
istent, the Absolute, the Eternal, and is not generally an object of worship, but, rather, of meditation and knowledge. The personal
form which is deified for the purpose of worship is spelt Brahma, ending in the long “a” which is the nominative masculine ending.
This term is used when the personal spirit is intended. The mixing of the universal and individual spirit is a constant source of con¬
fusion, and it is paramount that the student learn early to differentiate between them, otherwise the philosophy will always seem to
be a source of contradiction.
See also:
Semantics and pronunciation
Related words
Siva
Trimurti
Vishnu
Sanskrit _
Brahma — ^TT
brahma -
Brahmacarin
Definitions
General
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Brahmacharin (“seeker of Brahman”). A term with several possible meanings depending on the context. In the dharma literature,
which gives instruction on religious duties, a brahmacharin is a person in a period of religious study. This period is the first of the
four ashramas (“stages of life”) of a twice-born man, that is, a man born into one of three groups in Indian society: brahmin, ksha-
triya, or vaishya. Such men are eligible to receive the adolescent religious initiation known as the “second birth.” According to the
ideal, after his initiation and adornment with the sacred thread—the most visible sign of a twice-born man—the brahmacharin shall
live in his guru’s household and study the Veda, the oldest Hindu religious text, in addition to performing other religious acts. Since
brahmacharins are focused on gaining religious knowledge, this is supposed to be a very austere time of life marked by strict
celibacy, hard work, service to the teacher, meticulous observance of all religious rites, and avoidance of luxuries such as beds,
cosmetics, and bodily ornaments. Once this period of study is over, the student will marry and enter the second ashrama, that of
the householder. The system described in the dharma literature is an idealized model, and one cannot be sure that it was ever
strictly followed. Although many contemporary brahmin boys still undergo the “second birth,” other elements— such as the ascetic
lifestyle and emphasis on the study of the Veda—are largely ignored in contemporary times.
Some of the term’s original meaning remains in an ascetic context. Brahmacharin can also be defined as a novice or junior monk,
whose duty is to serve and learn from the senior monks, or as the name of two particular ascetic groups. One of these groups is
the prestigious Swaminarayan sect, whose members are recruited solely from the caste of brahmins. The other is an organization
called the Brahmachari Sanyasis, devotees (bhakta) of the god Shiva who are distinct from the Dashanami Sanyasis. The Brahm-
achari Sanyasis have an ashram on Mount Girnar and in the bathing (snana) festival known as the Kumbha Mela, the Brahmacha¬
ri Naga (fighting) Sanyasis have a recognized place among the other Naga groups.
Related words
Guru
Sishya
Sanskrit
brahmacarin - qH ^m
Brahmacarya
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Brahmacarya — ... a code of conduct; dwelling in Brahman; a student; “the path that leads to Brahman” or “moving in Brahman”;
abstention from incontinence; celibacy
1. The first stage of life—i.e., studentship. (See asrama.) The foundation for the Indian hermitage (asrama) and teacher’s school
(gurukula) system of education.
2. One of the abstentions in the Yoga system.
3. One of the great vows and one of the proper modes of conduct according to Jainism.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
brahmacarya -
study of the Veda, the state of an unmarried religious student, a state of continence and chastity
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Brahmacharya literally means “conducting oneself in accord with BRAHMAN.” Brahmacharya itself has two important meanings.
It refers to the ancient practice of celibacy for men, considered an indispensable aid for the most avid yogis and seekers who wish
to break the bonds of SAMSARA, or worldly existence. Restraint of the senses has always been an important aspect of Indian
YOGAs; complete restraint on sexuality is one of the most difficult and spiritually powerful restraints. Brahmacharya was also used
to refer to the student stage of a man’s life, in the Brahmanical tradition of life stages or ASHRAMAs. One was expected to remain
celibate during the 12 years of Vedic learning with one’s guru, from the age of 12 to the age of 24, when one was to take up the
household life. These stages of life may never have been precisely practiced by most BRAHMINS, but the ideal was widely known
and respected.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Brahmacharya (“going after Brahman”). In its most traditional sense, this word refers to the lifestyle of a young man belonging to a
particular class during his life as a student (brahmacharin). This period is the first of the four ashramas (“stages of life”) of a twice-
born man, that is, a man born into one of three groups in Indian society: brahmin, kshatriya, or vaishya. Such men are eligible to
receive the adolescent religious initiation known as the “second birth.” His life as a student will then commence, and he will move
into his guru’s household and study the sacred texts, the Vedas. This is conceived as a period of intense study, religious practice,
and an austere lifestyle marked by the restraint of desires, for which the hallmark is celibacy. Although the model of the four ash¬
ramas is largely archaic in modern times, the word brahmacharya still connotes this sort of austere religious lifestyle, and it is often
used as a synonym for celibacy.
Wikipedia
Brahmacharya (pronounced /,bra:me'tfarje/; Devanagari: under the tutelage of Brahman) refers to an approximate period
of 14-20 years of formal education in the traditional sciences, astronomy and religious texts contained within the Vedas and Upani-
shads, is also characterised by the practice of strict celibacy. Alternatively, Brahmacharya also denotes life long celibacy coupled
preferably with devotion to spiritual endeavours. A Brahmachari therefore is a male (and brahmacharini a female) who observes
sexual abstinence unless intentionally procreating. These characteristics correspond to Western notions of the religious life as
practised in monastic settings.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Brahmacarya: The state of being a brahmacarin.
Nitya. Meditations on the self
Brahmacharya - Literally, walking in the path of the Absolute. The four stages of life are (1) student, (2) married life, (3) an interim
period to prepare oneself for final renunciation, and 4) living as a renunciate, in a monastery or wandering as a wayfarer. The first
of these stages is called brahmacharya, followed in order by grihasthya. vaitaprostha and samnyasa.
Nitya. Principles and practice of Patanjali s Yoga
Brahmacarya: adhering to uprightness in life, walking in the path of the Absolute (brahman) .
Ramakrishna tradition
Vivekananda. Raja Yoga
Brahmacharya - chastity in thought, word and deed.
Descriptions
General
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
The Rainbow-Bridge is the Pathway of the Solar Hero. In it the Seven Colours of the Seven Spheres are united in beauty and
harmony, the Sun on one side, and the Clouds of Heaven on the other. On this bridge Man ventures higher than the Four Ele-
ments to Realms of Glory. In the Mundaka Upanishad (II; 2, 5) it is called “the Bridge of Immortality”. In the Katha Upanishad, the
Scripture which deals with Death, is written (III; 2): “May we be able to learn that Nachiketas fire-sacrifice, which is the bridge for
those who perform sacrifice, which leads to the imperishable Brahman those who desire to cross over to the other shore which is
beyond fear.” In the Chhandogya Upanishad (VIII; 4, 3) it is said that neither day nor night, death nor sorrow, virtue nor vice, can
pass it, but such as are established in Brahmacharya can pass to and fro at will. Brahmacharya is continence and chastity. It is the
Quality which has been seen to refer to Libra. It implies the overcoming of the lower form of Kama, Desire. But in a broader, high¬
er and deeper sense it implies the overcoming of the “coveting” of Capricorn, and the realization of the very nature of Kama, in all
its aspects. The more mystical aspect of Brahmacharya — which opens up only after the achievement of Brahmacharya on lower
planes — is fully manifest in the etymology of the word. It means simply “the following of Truth”, or “the practice of Reality”. The
root char means “to move, to act”.
Radhakrishnan. Philosophy of Upanishads
The Upanishads demand a sort of physical preparation for the spiritual fight. Cleansing, fasting, continence, solitude, etc., as pu¬
rificatory of the body, are enjoined. “ May my body become fit, may my tongue become extremely sweet, may I hear much in my
ears.” This is not to despise the body as a dog and an encumbrance to the human soul. Nor has this purifying of the body, freeing
of the senses, development of the mind, anything in common with self-torture.
Again, in the Chandogya Upanishad we are told that the world of Brahman belongs to those who find it by brahmacarya. Brah-
macarya is the discipline a student has to undergo when studying under a guru. It is not an ascetic withdrawal from the world, for
the same Upanishad in viii. 5 makes brahmacarya equivalent to the performing of sacrifices. It looks as if these were meant as a
warning against the false interpretation of brahmacarya as aloofness from the world. The body is the servant of the soul and not its
prison. There is no indication in the Upanishads that we must give up life, mind, consciousness, intelligence, etc.
Wikipedia
The term brahmacharya has a number of uses.
One common usage denotes within the Vedic ashram system the particular phase that occupies the first 20 or 25 years of life.
Ancient Hindu culture divides the human lifespan into 100 years. Brahmacharya is the stage when the young child leads a student
life (ideally in the Gurukula, the household of the Guru). This stage of life is preceded by the child’s Upanayanam, a ceremony in
which the child is considered to take a second birth. Brahmacharya is the first of the four phases of human life, namely, Brahm¬
acharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha, and finally Sannyasa, prescribed by Manusmriti for the dvija castes in the Hindu system of life.
The practice of brahmacharya requires, among other codes of conduct, that one be celibate.
Traditionally, such a life involved going to live with a spiritual teacher under whom the brahmachari (celibate) or chela (student)
practised strict celibacy, a life of moral restraint, dedicated to learning all aspects of “Dharma” that is learning the “Principles of
Justice and Righteousness” including personal responsibilities and duties towards himself, family, society and humanity at large
which included the environment/earth/nature AND devotion to meditation. In the Hindu scheme of life brahmacharya starts around
the age of five, when the chela starts his/her studies. In the sramanic traditions of Buddhism and Jainism (both of which stood out¬
side normal social convention) brahmacarya was practised generally by those who had already reached adulthood.
The word brahmacharya is also used for the vow of celibacy a Hindu sannyasi, or renunciate, may take at any age after under¬
standing that living for material or sensual pleasures will never bring the perfect happiness the soul desires. Thus one’s life be¬
comes centered on surrender to Guru and God, with the firm hope of God realization and the perfect divine happiness.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Principles and practice of Patanjalis Yoga
Brahmacarya: Adhering to Uprightness in Life
In India a person’s life span is described as having four complementary aspects in the pursuit for the actualization of the higher
values of life. The four stages of life are said to be: studentship, the married life of a householder, weaning away from household
obligation, and, ultimately, living as a renunciate. In fact, the intrinsic values of life are such that the four aspects cannot be com¬
pletely distinguished or separated from each other.
The first stage of life is designated as brahmacarya. That is a time when a person is to be fully instructed in the normative notion
of life. The norms are spiritual, moral, social, obligatory, and transcendent. Dharma is the main ideal stressed during this period
of self-discipline and instruction in the science of life. Dharma is that which sustains life and all its potentials in the here and now.
Hence it is specific. As years pass, the horizon of value interests expands from the here and now consideration to the eternal. The
expansion intends to bring within it the good of all.
At birth a person is said to be of very little knowledge (kimcitjnatva). The path to perfection is to become conversant with the omni¬
scient (sarvajnatva), the omnipresent, and the omnipotent. Movement from the small world of little knowledge to the infinite world
of omniscience is a logarithmic spiral in which the microcosm and the macrocosm become harmonized. The unbroken growth of
persistently relating the individual to the Absolute is indicated by the word brahmacarya. Many have missed this point.
As brahmacarya is intended to provide an aspirant with a fully enlightened path that will ever lead one from finitude to infinitude,
brahmacarya is identical with the prayer given in the B®hadarajyaka UpaniQad: “Lead me from untruth to truth, from darkness to
light, and from death to immortality.” From the first cognizance of the inflow of stimuli through the five senses to the final merger in
the all- transcending imperiential unity of the Absolute, brahmacarya is the only path that one has to tread. Any deviation is vyabhi-
carya.
The restraints given by Patanjali include brahmacarya to caution the aspirant that there are false paths and temptations from
which you should recoil. One who truly understands what brahmacarya is has already attained the highest mark of discrimination
that justly qualifies one to be an enlightened person. With that wisdom-insight, one confers on oneself rishi-hood, Buddha- hood,
Christ-hood, and the peace of Islam.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
D.: Is not brahmacharya (celibacy) necessary for realisation of the Self?
M.: Brahmacharya is ‘living in Brahman’. It has no connection with celibacy as commonly understood. A real brahmachari, that is
one who lives in Brahman, finds bliss in the Brahman which is the same as the Self. Why then should you look for other sources of
happiness? In fact the emergence from the Self has been the cause of all the misery.
... “How is Brahmacharya to be practised in order that it may be successfully lived up to?”
M.: It is a matter of will-power. Satvic food, prayers, etc., are useful aids to it.
... D.: Some young persons have taken a vow of brahmacharya. They repent of the vow after the lapse of ten or twelve years. Un¬
der these circumstances should we encourage young persons to take the vow of brahmacharya?
M.: This question will not arise in the case of true brahmacharya.
D.: Some young men take the vow of brahmacharya without knowing its full implications. When they find it difficult to carry it out in
practice, they seek our advice.
M.: They need not take a vow but they may try it without the vow.
D.: Is naishthika brahmacharya (life-long celibacy) essential as a sadhana for Self-Realisation?
M.: Realisation itself is naishthika brahmacharya. The vow is not brahmacharya. Life in Brahman is brahmacharya and it is not a
forcible attempt at it.
... Even Suka had no confidence in his brahmacharya whereas Sri Krishna was sure of his brahmacharya. Self-Realisation is des¬
ignated by so many different names, satya, brahmacharya, etc.
See also:
in Ashrama: Sankara. Atmabodha, tr. Nikhilananda
Etymology
General
Wikipedia
The word brahmacharya stems literally from two components:
Brahma, the deity representing the creative force (as part of the trinity of Hindu deities of Brahma as creation, Vishnu as preser¬
vation and Shiva as destruction). The word Brahma needs to be distinguished from Brahman, the absolute, eternal, never-born
godhead.
charya, which means “to be followed”. This is often translated as activity, mode of behaviour, a “virtuous” way of life.
So the word brahmacharya indicates a life lived in conformance with the creative aspects of ultimate reality or “god”.
Related words
Ashrama
Grihastha
Sannyasa
Vanaprastha
Sanskrit
Brahmacarya —
brahmacarya -
Brahman
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Brahman — ... the ultimate Reality; the ground of the universe; the Absolute; the Divine;
1. The Absolutely Great; that which is greater than the greatest. “That which puts an end to differences.” The Absolute Reality or
all- pervasive supreme principle of the universe. It has nothing similar to it and nothing different from it, and it has no empirical
distinctions from the acosmic viewpoint.
2. Vedantic term for the Absolute Reality. The Absolute or all-pervasive supreme principle of the universe. The nature of Brahman
is described in the Upanisads and in Vedantic philosophy as sat (Existence absolute), cit (Consciousness absolute), and anan-
da(Bliss absolute). (See satcidananda.)
3. Advaita Vedanta says it is not possible to explain Brahman in words. It transcends all concepts and ideas and is therefore
nirguna—beyond conceptualization. It is declared to be the only Truth. Other Vedantas explain that words may not entirely define
what Brahman is, but they do describe its glorious attributes and is therefore saguna—’’with glorious attributes.”
4. In the Upanisads it is conceived of in two modes: the Reality of which the universe is but an appearance (nisprapanca) and the
allinclusive ground of the universe (saprapanca). It is described positively as existence (sat), knowledge (cit), bliss (ananda), and
infinite (ananta) and negatively as “not this, not this” (neti neti). It has nothing similar to it and nothing different from it, and it has no
empirical distinctions from the acosmic viewpoint. According to Advaita Vedanta, Brahman is known in two forms: that as qualified
by limiting conditions owing to the distinctions of “name and form” and as what is free from all limiting conditions whatever. Both
Visistadvaita and Dvaita Vedanta conceive of Brahman as endowed with auspicious qualities (saguna).
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
brahman -
(lit. ‘growth’, ‘expansion’, ‘evolution’, ‘development’, ‘swelling of the spirit or soul’, pious effusion or utterance, outpouring of the
heart in worshipping the gods, prayer;
the sacred word (as opp. to vac, the word of man), the Veda, a sacred text, a text or Mantra used as a spell;
the Brahmana portion of the Veda;
the sacred syllable Om;
religious or spiritual knowledge (opp. to religious observances and bodily mortification such as tapas &c.);
holy life (esp. continence, chastity cf brahma-carya);
(exceptionally treated as m.) the Brahman or one self-existent impersonal Spirit, the one universal Soul (or one divine essence
and source from which all created things emanate or with which they are identified and to which they return), the Self-existent, the
Absolute, the Eternal (not generally an object of worship but rather of meditation and-knowledge...);
the class of men who are the repositories and communicators of sacred knowledge, the Brahmanical caste as a body (rarely an
individual Brahman);
food;
wealth;
final emancipation;
one who Prays, a devout or religious man, a Brahman who is a knower of Vedic texts or spells, one versed in sacred knowledge;
one of the 4 principal priests or ritvijas (the other three being the Hotri, Adhvaryu and Udgatri;
the Brahman was the most learned of them and was required to know the 3 Vedas, to supervise the, sacrifice and to set right mis¬
takes;
at a later period his functions were based especially on the Atharva-veda);
Brahma or the one impersonal universal Spirit manifested as a personal Creator and as the first of the triad of personal gods (=
prajapati, he never appears to have become an object of general worship, though he has two temples in India his wife is Saras-
vatl;
a lifetime of Brahma;
an inhabitant of Brahma’s heaven;
the sun;
N. of Siva;
the Veda;
the intellect (= buddhi).
Dictionary - Runes
Brahman, Brahma: (Skr.) The impersonal, pantheistic world-soul, the Absolute, union with which is the highest goal of the Upa-
nishads (q.v.) and Vedic (q.v.) thinking in general. It is occasionally identified with atman (q.v.) or made the exclusive reality (cf.
brahma eva idam visvam; sarvam khalv idam brahma), thus laying the foundation for a deep mystic as well as rational insight into
the connaturalness of the human and divine and an uncompromising monism which gave its impress to much of Hindu thinking.
K.F.L.
Wikipedia
Brahman
In the Hindu religion, Brahman is the unchanging, infinite, immanent, and transcendent reality which is the Divine Ground of all
matter, energy, time, space, being, and everything beyond in this Universe. The nature of Brahman is described as transperson¬
al, personal and impersonal by different philosophical schools. In the Rig Veda, Brahman gives rise to the primordial being Hira-
nyagarbha that is equated with the creator God Brahma. The trimurti can thus be considered a personification of Hiranyagarbha
as the active principle behind the phenomena of the universe.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Meditations on the self
Brahman - The Absolute. Often described as sat-cit-ananda, (which see) where the pure awareness of cit links the beingness of
the Absolute, sat, with its value dynamics, ananda.
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Brahman: The Absolute. Derived from the verb root brh, “to grow constantly.” Literally, “that which grows constantly.”
Descriptions
General
Deussen. Outlines of Indian Philosophy
Every attempt to explain this central idea of Indian philosophy must proceed from the fact that the word Brahman throughout the
Rigveda in which it occurs more than 200 times, signifies without exception nothing more than “prayer”. Like Soma and other gifts,
the prayer of the poet is offered to the gods; they enjoy it; they are fortified by it for their heroic deeds ; and as man stands in need
of the various benefits of the gods, the gods need for their welfare the offerings and especially the prayers of mankind; “prayer is
a ‘tonic’ of the gods”; “Indra for his battles is fortified by prayer” (offered to him); phrases like these occur frequently in the Rigve¬
da; thus the idea became more and more prominent that human prayer is a power which surpasses in potency even the might of
the gods. In the moments of religious devotion man felt himself raised above his own individuality, felt awakening in himself that
metaphysical power on which all worlds with their gods and creatures are dependent. By this curious development (comparable
to the history of the Biblical Adyoe) Brahman, the old name for prayer, became the most usual name for the creative principle of
the world. An old Rigvedic question “which was the tree, which was the wood, of which they hewed the earth and heaven”? is
repeated in a Brahmana text, and followed by the answer: “The Brahman was the tree, the wood from which they hewed the earth
and heaven.” Here the term Brahman has become already what it has been through all the following centuries - the most common
name for the eternal and changeless principle of the world.
Wikipedia
Conceptualization
Conceptualization
Brahman is the Absolute Godhead; Absolute Reality or universal substrate (not to be confused with the Creator god Lord Brah¬
ma) in Hinduism. It is said to be eternal, omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent, and ultimately indescribable in human language.
The sage- seers of the Upanishads had fully realized Brahman as the reality behind their own being and of everything else in this
universe. They were thus Brahmins in the true sense of the word. These rishis described Brahman as infinite Being, infinite Con¬
sciousness, and infinite Bliss (saccidananda). Brahman is regarded as the source and essence of the material universe. The Rig
Veda says that by the desire of the Supreme GOD (RV 10.12.94), the initial manifestation of the material universe came into being
from Hiranyagarbha (literally “golden womb”), out of which all worlds, organisms and divine beings (devas) arise:
“Great indeed are the devas who have sprung out of Brahman.” — Atharva Veda
Para Brahman corresponds to the concept of Godhead and Saguna Brahman to God as the Primordial Being.
It is said that Brahman cannot be known by material means, that we cannot be made conscious of it, because Brahman is our very
consciousness. Brahman is also not restricted to the usual dimensional perspectives of being, and thus enlightenment, moksha,
yoga, samadhi, nirvana, etc. do not merely mean to know Brahman, but to realise one’s “brahman- hood”, to actually realise that
one is and always was Brahman. Indeed, closely related to the Self concept of Brahman is the idea that it is synonymous with jiva-
atma, or individual souls, our atman (or soul) being readily identifiable with the greater soul (paramatma) of Brahman.
Generally, Vedanta rejects the notion of an evolving Brahman since Brahman contains within it the potentiality and archetypes
behind all possible manifest phenomenal forms. The Vedas, though they are in some respects historically conditioned are con¬
sidered by Hindus to convey a knowledge eternal, timeless and always contemporaneous with Brahman. This knowledge is con-
sidered to have been handed down by realised yogins to students many generations before the vedas were committed to writing.
Written texts of the Vedas are a relatively recent phenomenon.
Connected with the ritual of pre-Vedantic Hinduism, Brahman signified the power to grow, the expansive and self-altering process
of ritual and sacrifice, often visually realized in the sputtering of flames as they received the all important ghee (clarified butter)
and rose in concert with the mantras of the Vedas. The term Brahmin in the Vedic period actually meant one who has realized
Brahman. However, later on Brahmin came to be identified with the highest of the four castes, the Brahmins, who by virtue of their
purity and priesthood held themselves as proprietors of rituals, though mostly without actual realization of Brahman, and void of
Vedantic knowledge.
Among Hindu sects, Advaita Vedanta is the first instance of monism in organized religion and Hinduism is the only religion with
this concept. The closest interpretation of the term can be found in the Taittariya Upanishad (11.1) where Brahman is described as
satyam jnanam anantam brahman (“Brahman is of the nature of truth, knowledge and infinity”). Thus, Brahman is the origin and
end of all things, material or otherwise. Brahman is the root source and Divine Ground of everything that exists, and is the only
thing that exists according to Shankara. It is defined as unknowable and Satchitananda (“Truth- Consciousness- Bliss”). Since it is
eternal and infinite, it comprises the only truth. The goal of Vedanta is to realize that the soul (Atman) is actually nothing but Brah¬
man. The Hindu pantheon of gods is said, in the Vedas and Upanishads, to be only higher manifestations of Brahman. For this
reason, “ekam sat” (“Truth is one”), and all is Brahman. This explains the Hindu view that “All paths lead to the one Truth, though
many sages [and religions] call upon it by different names.”
Several maha-vakyas, or great sayings, indicate what the principle of Brahman is:
prajnanam brahma “Brahman is knowledge”
ayam atma brahma “The Self (or the Soul) is Brahman “
aham brahmasmi “I am Brahman”
tat tvam asi “Thou art that”
sarvam khalv idam brahma “All this that we see in the world is Brahman”,
sachchidananda brahma “Brahman or Brahma is existence, consciousness, and bliss”.
In Advaita Vedanta
Georg Feuerstein summarizes the advaita realization as follows: “The manifold universe is, in truth, a Single Reality. There is only
one Great Being, which the sages call Brahman, in which all the countless forms of existence reside. That Great Being is utter
Consciousness, and It is the very Essence, or Self (Atman) of all beings.”
The universe does not simply possess consciousness, it is consciousness, and this consciousness is Brahman. According to Adi
Shankara, knowledge of Brahman springs from inquiry into the words of the Upanishads, and the knowledge of brahman that
shruti provides cannot be obtained in any other way.
In Advaita Vedanta, Brahman is without attributes and strictly impersonal. It can be best described as infinite Being, infinite Con¬
sciousness, and infinite Bliss. It is pure knowledge itself, similar to a source of infinite radiance. Since the Advaitins regard Brah¬
man to be the Ultimate Truth, so in comparison to Brahman, every other thing, including the material world, its distinctness, the
individuality of the living creatures and even Ishvara (the Supreme Lord) itself are all untrue. Brahman is the effulgent cause of
everything that exists and can possibly exist. Since it is beyond human comprehension, it is without any attributes, for assigning
attributes to it would be distorting the true nature of Brahman. Advaitins believe in the existence of both Saguna Brahman and
Nirguna Brahman, however they consider Nirguna Brahman to be the Absolute Truth.
When man tries to know the attributeless Brahman with his mind, under the influence of an illusionary power of Brahman called
Maya, Brahman becomes God (Ishvara). God is the reflection of the Brahman in the environment of illusion (Maya). Just like re¬
flection of moon, in a pool of water. The material world also appears as such due to Maya. God is Saguna Brahman, or Brahman
with attributes. He is omniscient, omnipresent, incorporeal, independent, Creator of the world, its ruler and also destroyer. He is
eternal and unchangeable. He is both immanent and transcedent, as well as full of love and justice. He may be even regarded
to have a personality. He is the subject of worship. He is the basis of morality and giver of the fruits of one’s Karma. He rules the
world with his Maya. However, while God is the Lord of Maya and she (i.e. Maya) is always under his control, living beings (jlva, in
the sense of humans) are the servants of Maya (in the form of ignorance). This ignorance is the cause of all material experiences
in the mortal world. While God is Infinite Bliss, humans, under the influence of Maya consider themselves limited by the body and
the material, observable world. This misperception of Brahman as the observed Universe results in human emotions such as hap¬
piness, sadness, anger and fear. The ultimate reality remains Brahman and nothing else. The Advaita equation is simple. It is due
to Maya that the one single Atman (the individual soul) appears to the people as many Atmans, each in a single body. Once the
curtain of maya is lifted, the Atman is exactly equal to Brahman. Thus, due to true knowledge, an individual loses the sense of ego
(Ahamkara) and achieves liberation, or Moksha.
Relevant verses from Bhagavad-Gita which establish the Advaita position:
The indestructible, transcendental living entity is called Brahman, and its eternal nature is called adhyatma, the self. (Bhagavad
Gita 8.3)
Similar to a person who is not attached to external pleasures but enjoys happiness in the Atman (soul), the person who perceives
Brahman (all- pervading consciousness) in everybody feels everlasting joy. (Bhagavad Gita 5.21)
In Dvaita Vedanta
Brahman of Dvaita (substantial monism) is synonymous with Hari or Vishnu, who is the most exalted Para Brahman (Supreme
Brahman), superior to liberated souls and even the impersonal Brahman. Dvaita holds that the individual soul is dependent
(paratantra) on God, since it is unable to exist without the energizing support of the universal spirit, just as a tree cannot survive
without its sap.
Dvaita schools argue against the Advaita concept that upon liberation one realizes Brahman as a formless God is erroneous,
quoting from Vedanta Sutra:
The form of Brahman is unmanifest, but even the form of Brahman becomes directly visible to one who worships devoutly (tat
avyaktam aha, api samradhane pratyaksa anumanabhyam) (Vedanta Sutra 3.2.23)
Within His divine realm, devotees see other divine manifestations which appear even as physical objects in a city (antara bhuta
gramavat svatmanah). (Vedanta Sutra 3.3.36)
In Visishtadvaita Vedanta
Brahman of Visishtadvaita is synonymous with Narayana, who is the transcendent and immanent reality. Brahman or Narayana
is Saguna Brahman with infinite auspicious qualities, and not the Advaita concept of attributeless Nirguna Brahman. “Sarvam
khalvidam brahma, tajjalaniti santa upasita”: According to Ramanuja, considering the appearance of the word “tajjalan iti” (Roots:
tat + ja = born + la = dissolved), this statement from the Chandogya Upanishad does not simply mean that the universe is Brah¬
man, but that it is pervaded by, born from and dissolves into Brahman. An analogy: fish is born in water, lives in water, and is
ultimately dissolved into water; yet the fish is not water.
The concept of Brahman in Visishtadvaita is explained as an inseparable triad of Ishwara- Chit-Achit. Ishvara, the Supreme Self
(Paramatman) is the indwelling spirit (Antaryami) in all. Both the Chit (sentient) and Achit (insentient) entities are pervaded and
permeated by Ishvara. Brahman is the material and efficient cause of the universe. The concept of Brahman in Visishtadvaita can
be seen as a hybrid of Advaita and Dvaita positions. Like all other Vaishnava schools of thought, Visishtadvaita is also panentheis-
tic unlike the pantheism of Advaita. It also proposes a qualified attributive monism approach as opposed to the absolute monism of
Advaita.
Brahman is, Antaryami, the real self of all beings. Everything other than Brahman form the Sarira (body) of Brahman. The insep¬
arable relation between the body and the soul is similar to that of substance and attribute which are inseparable. So Brahman is
the prakari and the universe is the prakara, mode of Brahman. Hence anything that describes a sentient or insentient being has its
connotation only with Brahman, the real and ultimate self.
Followers of Visishtadvaita refute Advaita thought that if it is indeed true that the one undivided Brahman, whose very nature is
pure spirit, is the foundation of Maya and also embodies the liberating force of knowledge, then it is illogical to say that the very
same Brahman falls under the influence of the illusory power of Maya and gets covered by ignorance. Thus establishing that Jiva
and Ishvara are indeed separate entities. Since both their identities and capabilities are different, the Jiva and the Lord are essen¬
tially distinct. In other words, if Brahman is indivisible, changeless, and supreme, then a force of Maya cannot appear within Brah¬
man, modify it, and put it into ignorance.
Bhakti Yoga is the sole means of liberation in Visishtadvaita. Through Bhakti (devotion), a Jiva ascends to the realm of the Lord to
become one with Him. Karma Yoga and Jnana Yoga are natural outcomes of Bhakti, total surrender, as the devotee acquires the
knowledge that the Lord is the inner self. A devotee realizes his own state as dependent on, and supported by, and being led by
the Lord, who is the Master. One is to lead a life as an instrument of the Lord, offering all his thought, word, and deed to the feet of
the Lord. One is to see the Lord in everything and everything in Him. This is the unity in diversity achieved through devotion.
In Bhagavad-Gita, Krishna is Ishvara and denotes Saguna Brahman, and the term Brahman means Nirguna Brahman:
I (Ishvara) am the basis of the impersonal Brahman, which is immortal, imperishable and eternal and is the constitutional position
of ultimate happiness. (Bhagavad Gita 14.27)
I (Ishvara) am transcendental, beyond both kshara (the fallible, perishable world) and akshara (the infallible). (Bhagavad Gita
15.18)
Semantics and pronunciation
Semantics and pronunciation
In Vedic Sanskrit:-
Brahma (sk^h) (nominative singular), brahman (q. J qHm) (stem) (neuter gender) means the Great Cosmic Spirit, from root brha
(growth, development, expansion, swelling).
Brahmanda (47^41 u !^) (nominative singular), from stems brha (to expand) + anda (egg), means universe as an expansion of a
cosmic egg (Hiranyagarbha), or the macrocosm. Brahmanda Purana discusses cosmogenesis. Bhagavata Purana also discusses
cosmogony and fundamental principles of material nature in detail.
In later Sanskrit usage:-
Brahma (sk^h) (nominative singular), brahman (stem) (neuter gender) means the concept of the transcendent and immanent
ultimate reality of the One Godhead or Supreme Cosmic Spirit in Hinduism; the concept is central to Hindu philosophy, especially
Vedanta; this is discussed below. Also note that the word Brahman in this sense is exceptionally treated as masculine (see the
Merrill- Webster Sanskrit Dictionary). It is called “the Brahman” in English. Brahm is another variant of Brahman.
Brahma (sR^HI) (nominative singlular), Brahman (d, J qHH) (stem) (masculine gender), means the deity or deva Prajapati Brahma.
He is one of the members of the Hindu trinity and associated with creation, but does not have a cult in present day India. This
is because Brahma, the creator-god, is long-lived but not eternal i.e. Brahma gets absorbed back into Purusha at the end of an
aeon, and is born again at the beginning of a new kalpa.
One must not confuse these with:
A brahmana (sp!|^H IJ l) (masculine, pronounced as /bra:h me Ne/ - the N being retroflex), (which literally means “pertaining to
prayer”) is a prose commentary on the Vedic mantras—an integral part of the Vedic literature.
A brahmana (ski^h^i) (masculine, same pronunciation as above), means priest; in this usage the word is usually rendered in En¬
glish as “Brahmin”. This usage is also found in the Atharva Veda. In neuter plural form, Brahmani. See Vedic priest.
Ishvara, (lit., Supreme Lord), in Advaita, is identified as a partial worldly manifestation (with limited attributes) of the ultimate real¬
ity, the attributeless Brahman. In Visishtadvaita and Dvaita, however, Ishvara (the Supreme Controller) has infinite attributes and
the source of the impersonal Brahman.
Devas, the expansions of Brahman/God into various forms, each with a certain quality. In Vedic Hinduism, there were 33 devas,
which later became exaggerated to 330 million devas. In fact, devas are themselves regarded as more mundane manifestations
of the One and the Supreme Brahman (See Para Brahman). The Sanskrit word for “ten million” also means group, and 330 million
devas originally meant 33 types of divine manifestations.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
One cannot become Brahman by continuing to repeat the mantra. It means that Brahman is not elsewhere. It is your Self. Find
that Self; Brahman is found. Do not attempt to reach Brahman as if it were in some far off place.
Ramakrishna tradition
Ramakrishna. The gospel of Sri Ramakrishna
MASTER: “A man had two sons. The father sent them to a preceptor to learn the Knowledge of Brahman. After a few years they
returned from their preceptor’s house and bowed low before their father. Wanting to measure the depth of their knowledge of
Brahman, he first questioned the older of the two boys. ‘My child,’ he said, ‘You have studied all the scriptures. Now tell me, what
is the nature of Brahman?’ The boy began to explain Brahman by reciting various texts from the Vedas. The father did not say
anything. Then he asked the younger son the same question. But the boy remained silent and stood with eyes cast down. No
word escaped his lips. The father was pleased and said to him: ‘My child, you have understood a little of Brahman. What It is can¬
not be expressed in words.’”
See: Brahma and Brahman
Brahman and Atman
General
Muller. The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy
Highest Brahman is that it is one, never changing, never in contact with anything, devoid of all form, eternally pure, intelligent and
free. To ascribe anything phenomenal to that Brahman or Atman would be the same error as to ascribe blue colour to the colour¬
less ether of the sky.
... Having no qualities, this highest Brahman cannot of course be known by predicates. It is subjective, and not liable to any objec¬
tive attributes. If it knows, it can only know itself, like the sun that is not lighted, but lights itself. Our knowledge of Brahman also
can only be consciousness of Brahman as our own subjective Atman or Self.
Dasgupta. A history of Indian philosophy
When Bahva was questioned by Vashkali, he expounded the nature of Brahman to him by maintaining silence-- “Teach me,”
said Vashkali, “most reverent sir, the nature of Brahman.” Bahva however remained silent. But when the question was put forth a
second or third time he answered, “I teach you indeed but you do not understand; the Atman is silence.” The way to indicate it is
thus by “neti neti”, it is not this, it is not this. We cannot describe it by any positive content which is always limited by conceptual
thought.”
Brahman, Brahmin, Brahmana
General
Wikipedia
Brahman and Brahmin (brahman, brahman, masculine) are not the same. Brahman (brahman, neuter), since the Upanishads,
refers to the Supreme Self. Brahmin or Brahmana (brahman, brahmana) refers to an individual. Additionally, the word Brahma
(brahma, masculine) refers to first of the gods.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. The word of the Guru
Brahman in Sanskrit is neuter and stands for the Absolute. The true Brahmin (Anglicised version of Brahmana, is either a Brahma-
jnani or knower of the Absolute, or one whose life is dedicated to Brahman.).
Brahman, Ishvara, Hiranyagarbha, Virat
Sivananda tradition
Krishnananda. Commentary on the Bhagavadgita
In the Panchadasi and other Vedantic scriptures, much is told to us about the way in which Brahman becomes Isvara, Isvara
becomes Hiranyagarbha, Hiranyagarbha becomes Virat. The illustration given in the Sixth Chapter of the Panchadasi is that
Brahman is like a clean cloth. Isvara is like the very same cloth stiffened with starch. The painter cannot paint directly on the cloth.
The cloth must first be stiffened. Starch is applied to the cloth - that is, the cloth assumes a concretised form, as it were. It is not
the pure cloth that it was, but cloth is still there as the base. Without the cloth, there cannot be the starchiness; but without the
starch, the cloth cannot be a good background for any painting. Similarly, there cannot be a movie in a cinema without the screen.
Though we are not going to the cinema to see the screen, we know very well how important the screen is. The painting on the
canvas is very attractive indeed and we go on looking at it, but we never think of the background on which the painting has been
made. We never recognise its existence, just as we do not think of the building’s foundation when we look at it.
This foundation is the cloth, and it gradually stiffens itself into a will to create, just as the cloth is stiffened by the application of
starch. That stiffened form, which is the will of Brahman, as they call it, is Isvara tattva. Then what does the painter do? After the
cloth is stiffened with starch, he draws an outline of the picture that he will paint; with a pencil or a slight touch of ink, he draws an
outline. This outline of the universe which is not yet fully manifest is Hiranyagarbha. We have a faint idea as to what will be the
character of the universe that is going to be created, even as by seeing the pencil drawing, we can know what the painter is actu¬
ally going to paint. The full painting is the Virat. The drawing on the canvas is filled with ink of various colours, and then we have
the beautiful picture of the painting. This is the Virat - the whole cosmos looking so beautiful, the finest and the most complete
manifestation of that which was only an outline in Hiranyagarbha, and which was only the will to create in Isvara, with Brahman as
the background. Aham kritsnasya jagatah prabhavah pralayas tatha.
The cloth can say that it is the entire painting because without it there would be no painting at all. Though we see only the painting
and do not appreciate or even think of the cloth on which it is made, where would the painting be without the cloth? In the same
way, Isvara, Hiranyagarbha and Virat - this beautiful creation that we see - cannot exist if there is no universal background which
is Brahman. Brahman is totally invisible, as is the cloth behind the painting, but it is very, very substantial; and without it, nothing
can be. Therefore, Lord Krishna says, “I am everything. I am the origin and the sustenance of this cosmos.”
See: Maya and Brahman
See: Prakriti and Brahman
See also:
Muller. The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Brahman — from the root brh = “to expand, greater than the greatest”
Wikipedia
The word “Brahman” is derived from the verb ((brh)) (Sanskrit: to grow), and connotes greatness. The Mundaka Upanishad says:
Om- That supreme Brahman is infinite, and this conditioned Brahman is infinite. The infinite proceeds from infinite. Then through
knowledge, realizing the infinitude of the infinite, it remains as infinite alone.
Sanskrit brahman (an n-stem, nominative brahma) is from the root brh “ to swell, grow, enlarge”, brahman is a masculine deriva¬
tion of brahman, denoting a person associated with brahman. The further origin of brh is unclear. It could be from PIE *bherg’h- “to
rise, high, eminent”, cognate to Old Norse Bragi. Some, including Georges Dumezil, have said that the Latin word flamen “priest’
may also be cognate.
Related words
Apara-brahman
Atman
Cit
Maya
Nirguna-brahman
Para-brahman
Prajapati
Prakriti
Prapanca
Saccidananda
Saguna-brahman
Saksin
Sanskrit
Brahman —
brahman -
Brahmana
Variant spellings
brahmana
brahmana
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Brahmana — ... a spiritual and intellectual being endowed with purity, who has understood Reality (Brahman), who fosters spiritu¬
ality, and who helps others to know the Reality; a member of the priestly caste; the liturgical texts of the Vedas.
1. One of the four castes whose duty it is to study and perpetuate the Vedas. (See varna.)
2. Liturgical texts written in prose and explanatory of the significance of the different rituals found in the sarhhitas. They are the
guidebooks for performing sacrificial rites. Distinct from the mantra and Upanisad sections, the brahmanas contain rules for the
employment of the mantras, or hymns, at various sacrifices, with detailed explanations of their origin and meaning and numerous
ancient legends. They are said by Sayanacarya to contain two parts: vidhi, or rules for rites and arthavada, or explanatory re¬
marks. Each Veda has its own Brahmana. That of the Rg Veda is preserved in two works, Aitareya and Kausitaki. The White Yajur
Veda has the Satapatha Brahmana and the Black Yajur Veda has the TaittirTya Brahmana. The Sama Veda has eight Brahmanas,
the best known of which are the Praudha and the Sadvinsa. The Atharva Veda has one Brahmana called the Gopatha.
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Brahmanas are texts that delineate the workings of the BRAHMAN in its oldest sense of the power, efficacy, or energy of Vedic rit¬
ual. They are considered SHRUTI or revelation and are part of the VEDAS. They accompany the MANTRA text of the four Vedas
and are memorized along with them; the Brahmana of the Black YAJUR VEDA is interspersed with the mantras; the other three
are stand alone texts. All the Brahmanas are written in prose.
The Brahmanas are designed to guide and explain the ritual sacrifice (YAJNA). Much Vedic mythology is found in the Brahmanas,
explaining how particular rituals relate to the actions of particular divinities. For example, the SHATAPATHA BRAHMANA explains
that goat hair is to be mixed with other ingredients for a ritual fire (AGNI), because the gods once collected Agni from among cat¬
tle. Brahmanas abound in much obscure, esoteric material that is not easy for the outsider to grasp, but that assure the efficacy
and intelligibility of the Vedic ritual for practitioners.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Brahmana. General name for the second literary stratum in the Vedas, the earliest and most authoritative Hindu religious texts.
Although the composition of these differing parts of the Veda is not completely linear, the Brahmanas generally come after the
hymns of praise to the gods known as samhitas and precede the speculative texts known as the Aranyakas and the Upanishads.
In theory, each Veda has a Brahmana as an appendix, which is intended to give further explanation of the Vedic rituals. Although
the Yajur Veda is the only one for which this is actually true, this understanding gives the Brahmanas the authority of revealed
scripture (shruti) and thus makes them unquestionable. There are several different Brahmanas, of which the most important are
the Aiteraya Brahmana and the Shatapatha Brahmana; the latter’s tone and contents (including the Isha Upanishad) clearly mark
it as the most recent of the Brahmanas.
The Brahmanas are primarily ritual manuals, and they give exacting, painstaking instructions for performing these Vedic rituals.
These texts indicate a fundamental shift in religious practice, from the earlier emphasis on sacrifice as a means of invoking and
pleasing the Vedic gods to an importance on the power of ritual itself. This new emphasis makes the sacrificial priests the most
powerful people of all, since even the gods themselves are subject to the rituals. The power of correctly performed ritual paves
the way for the Aranyakas and the Upanishads, which asks more speculative questions about the rituals themselves. At times
these differing religious genres are juxtaposed—as in the Shatapatha Brahmana, in which the Isha Upanishad is embedded. Such
juxtapositions indicate that although the stress varied in differing types of texts, there was some overlap during the time they were
composed.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Brahmana: One of the four varnas in the caturvarnya concept, referring to those who love to learn and teach.
Descriptions
General
Dasgupta. A history of Indian philosophy
The Brahmanas.
After the Samhitas there grew up the theological treatises called the Brahmanas, which were of a distinctly different literary type.
They are written in prose, and explain the sacred significance of the different rituals to those who are not already familiar with
them. “They reflect,” says Professor Macdonell, “the spirit of an age in which all intellectual activity is concentrated on the sacrifice,
describing its ceremonies, discussing its value, speculating on its origin and significance.” These works are full of dogmatic asser¬
tions, fanciful symbolism and speculations of an unbounded imagination in the field of sacrificial details. The sacrificial ceremonials
were probably never so elaborate at the time when the early hymns were composed. But when the collections of hymns were be¬
ing handed down from generation to generation the ceremonials became more and more complicated. Thus there came about the
necessity of the distribution of the different sacrificial functions among several distinct classes of priests. We may assume that this
was a period when the caste system was becoming established, and when the only thing which could engage wise and religious
minds was sacrifice and its elaborate rituals. Free speculative thinking was thus subordinated to the service of the sacrifice, and
the result was the production of the most fanciful sacramental and symbolic system, unparalleled anywhere but among the Gnos¬
tics. It is now generally believed that the close of the Brahmana period was not later than 500 B.C.
[Footnote 2: Weber (Hist. Ind. Lit., p. 11, note) says that the word Brahmana signifies “that which relates to prayer brahman.” Max
Muller (S.B.E., l.p. Ixvi) says that Brahmana meant “originally the sayings of Brahmans, whether in the general sense of priests, or
in the more special sense of Brahman-priests.” Eggeling (S.B.E. XII. Introd. p. xxii) says that the Brahmanas were so called “prob¬
ably either because they were intended for the instruction and guidance of priests (brahman) generally; or because they were, for
the most part, the authoritative utterances of such as were thoroughly versed in Vedic and sacrificial lore and competent to act as
Brahmans or superintending priests.” But in view of the fact that the Brahmanas were also supposed to be as much revealed as
the Vedas, the present writer thinks that Weber’s view is the correct one.]
Wikipedia
The Brahmanas (Devanagari: ski^h u ih) are part of the Hindu sruti literature. They are commentaries on the four Vedas, detailing
the proper performance of rituals.
Each Vedic shakha (school) had its own Brahmana, and it is not known how many of these texts existed during the Mahajanapa-
das period. A total of 19 Brahmanas are extant at least in their entirety: two associated with the Rigveda, six with the Yajurveda,
ten with the Samaveda and one with the Atharvaveda. Additionally, there are a handful of fragmentarily preserved texts. They
vary greatly in length; the edition of the Shatapatha Brahmana fills five volumes of the Sacred Books of the East, while the Vamsa
Brahmana can be printed on a single page.
The Brahmanas were seminal in the development of later Indian thought and scholarship, including Hindu philosophy, predeces¬
sors of Vedanta, law, astronomy, geometry, linguistics (Panini), the concept of Karma, or the stages in life such as brahmacarya,
grihastha and eventually, sannyasi. Some Brahmanas contain sections that are Aranyakas or Upanishads in their own right.
The language of the Brahmanas is a separate stage of Vedic Sanskrit, younger than the text of the samhitas (the mantra text of
the Vedas proper) but for the most part older than the text of the Sutras. It dates to the Iron Age, or about the 9th, 8th and 7th cen¬
turies BC, with some of the younger Brahmanas (such as the Shatapatha Brahmana) overlapping with the Sutra period, dating to
about the 6th century BC. Historically, this corresponds to the emergence of great kingdoms or Mahajanapadas out of the earlier
tribal kingdoms during the later Vedic period.
See also:
Diagram: Summary of Vedic literature
Related words
Aranyaka
Brahmin
Sruti
Upanishad
Varna
Veda
Sanskrit
Brdhmana — <5tifDi
brahmana - sRl^Di
Brahma-sutra
Title variants
Brahma-sutra
brahma-sutra -
Badarayana Sutra
Vedanta Sutra
Vyasa Sutra
Sariraka Sutra
Vedanta Sutras
Uttara MTmamsa-sutras
Sariraka Sutras
Sariraka Mimamsa-sutras
Vaishnavas also call this the Bhikshu sutras
Author(s)
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Brahma-sutra — ... written by Badarayana...
... It is ascribed to Vyasa [two names of the same rishi].
Descriptions
General
Dasgupta. A history of Indian philosophy
It is difficult to ascertain the time when the Brahma-sGtras were written, but since they contain a refutation of almost all the other
Indian systems, even of the Sunyavada Buddhism (of course according to Sankara’s interpretation), they cannot have been writ¬
ten very early. I think it may not be far from the truth in supposing that they were written some time in the second century B.C.
Dictionary - Grimes
Brahma-sGtra — ... “threads of the Absolute”; brief aphorisms written by Badarayana harmonizing the teachings of the Upanisads
1. An authoritative treatise on the Vedanta philosophy dealing with the knowledge of the Absolute (Brahman). It is ascribed to
Vyasa and known by various names such as Badarayana Sutra, Vedanta SGtra, Vyasa SGtra, Sarlraka SGtra. Every founder of a
Vedantic school has to write a commentary on the book, though Sarikaracarya’s is perhaps the most famous.
2. It sets forth the teachings of the Vedanta in a logical order. (See prasthana traya.)
3. The Bhasyakaras or main commentators (exponents) on the Brahma- sGtra are Sankara, Bhaskara, Yadava, Nimbarka,
Ramanuja, Srikantha, Madhva.Vallabha, and Baladeva.
4. Other names for the Brahma-sGtra include Vedanta-sGtra SarTrakasGtra, Bhiksu-sGtra, and Uttara-MTmarr)sa-sGtra.
5. It is divided into four chapters (adhyaya), with each chapter consisting of four parts (pada) and each part being divided into a
number of sections (adhikarana). Each section contains one or more sGtras depending upon the interpretation of the Bhasyakara
thereof.
6. Its four chapters are entitled “harmony” (samanvaya)—bringing out the coherent import of the Upanisads by explaining appar¬
ently doubtful statements; “nonconflict” (avirodha)—presenting the Vedantic position philosophically with regard to other systems;
“the means” (sadhana)—outlining the spiritual pathway to liberation; and “the fruit” (phala)—discussing the nature of the goal itself.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
brahmasGtra -
the sacred thread worn over the shoulder;
a SGtra work treating of the knowledge of Brahman (esp. the aphorisms of the Vedanta philosophy ascribed to Badarayana or
Vyasa, also called badarayana- or vedanta- or vyasa- or sarTraka-sGtra, and uttara- or brahma-mTmarhsa)
Hiriyanna. Outlines of Indian philosophy
There is evidence to show that this systematization [of the teaching of the Upanisads] was effected in more than one way. In the
SGtra of Badarayana there is reference to as many as seven Vedantic teachers— whether they were his predecessors or contem¬
poraries is not known; and he alludes to differences of view among them in respect of essential points like the nature of moksa
and the need of samnyasa for the spiritual aspirant. ... Differences like these on fundamental issues show that the teaching of the
Upanisads was from very early times understood in several ways by Vedantic teachers. Badarayana’s exposition is only one; and,
in all likelihood, the most influential of them. All current schools of Vedanta, though differing from one another in important matters,
alike claim to represent precisely what Badarayana himself taught. The extremely laconic form of his sGtras has rendered such va-
riety in interpretation possible. In fact, they are more cryptic than the Upanisads, and it is consequently much more difficult to get
at their meaning than at that of those old treatises. The result is that even as regards the most essential points there is ambiguity.
We do not for instance know for certain whether, according to Badarayana, the world actually emerges from Brahman (parinama)
or is only a phenomenal appearance of it (vivarta). There seem to have been once commentaries on the Vedanta-sutra uphold¬
ing both these views with all their implied differences under theory as well as practical discipline; but they were all superseded by
Sarhkara ‘s great commentary upholding the latter view and are now lost. ... There have also been purely theistic interpretations of
the Sutra, especially subsequent to Sarhkara; and among them again we find distinctions due to the identification of the supreme
God with Visnu or Siva. Thus Ramanuja and Madhva uphold the supremacy of Visnu, while SrTkantha exalts Siva above him. Of
these various schools of Vedanta, we shall consider here only two - one, that of Sarhkara t o represent the philosophic interpreta¬
tion and the other, that of Ramanuja to represent the theistic.
Wikipedia
The Brahma sutras, also known as Vedanta Sutras, constitute the Nyaya prasthana, the logical starting point of the Vedanta phi¬
losophy (Nyaya = logic/order). No study of Vedanta is considered complete without a close examination of the Prasthana Traya
(Prasthanatrayi), the texts that stand as the three starting points. The Brahma Sutras are attributed to Badarayana.
While the Upanishads (Sruti prasthana, the starting point of revelation) and the Bhagavad-GTta (Smriti prasthana, the starting point
of remembered tradition) are the basic source texts of Vedanta, it is in the Brahma sutras that the teachings of Vedanta are set
forth in a systematic and logical order.
,,, The Brahma Sutras attempt to reconcile the seemingly contradictory and diverse statements of the various Upanishads and
the Bhagavad Gita, by placing each teaching in a doctrinal context. The word sGtra means thread, and the Brahma sutras literally
stitch together the various Vedanta teachings into a logical and self- consistent whole.
However, the Brahma Sutras are so terse that not only are they capable of being interpreted in multiple ways, but they are often
incomprehensible without the aid of the various commentaries handed down in the main schools of Vedanta thought.
The Vedanta Sutras supply ample evidence that at a very early time, i.e. a period before their own final composition, there were
differences of opinion among the various interpreters of the Vedanta. Quoted in the Vedanta Sutras are opinions ascribed to Aud-
ulomi, Karshnagni, Kasakrtsna, Jaimini and Badari, in addition to Vyasa.
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Brahma-Sutras: Original aphorisms of canonical rank, which, together with the Bhagavad Gita and the Upanishadsare known as
the Prasthana Thrayas or the three bases of belief. The Sutras sometimes called Vedanta Sutras,are attributed to Badarayana,
sometimes identified with Vyasa (q.v.) or Veda Vyasa. Their importance is enhanced as Sankara commented upon them, as also
Madhva and Ramanuja. Their study thus gives a thorough grounding for a Brahmachari in Vedanta in its anterior and posterior
forms, as re-stated by Sankara.
Commentaries
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Brahma-sutra —,,,
3. The Bhasyakaras or main commentators (exponents) on the Brahma-sutra are Sarikara, Bhaskara, Yadava, Nimbarka, Ra¬
manuja, Srikantha, Madhva.Vallabha, and Baladeva.
Wikipedia
Many commentaries have been written on this text, the earliest extant one being the one by Adi Shankara. His commentary set
forth the non-dualistic (Advaita) interpretation of the Vedanta, and was commented upon by Vacaspati and Padmapada. These
sub-commentaries, in turn, inspired other derivative texts in the Advaita school.
Ramanuja also wrote a commentary on the Brahma sutra, called Sri Bhasya, which lays the foundations of the Vishishtadvaita
tradition. In this, he firmly refutes the Advaita view as proposed by Adi Shankara in his commentary.
Other commentators on the Brahma Sutras, belonging to other schools of Vedanta, include Bhaskara, Yadavaprakasa, Kesava,
NTIakantha, Madhvacharya, Vallabha, Vijnanabhiksu, Nimbarka, and Baladeva Vidyabhushana.
Synopsis
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
A SUTRA is a short aphoristic line of text; Vedanta Sutra can thus be translated as “lines relating to the VEDANTA.” There are
about 560 lines in this text.
The work was composed to resolve difficulties in the interpretation of the UPANISHADS and to refute the views of certain oppos¬
ing schools. Chapter I systematically and with great specificity discusses the Upanishad passages dealing with BRAHMAN (the
universal reality) and ATMAN (the soul or self). Chapter II is devoted to a refutation of the other interpretations, as presented by
the schools of SAMKHYA, YOGA, NYAYA, VAISHESHIKA, MIMAMSA, CHARVAKA, Buddhism, and JAINISM. Chapter III dis¬
cusses the PRAMANAS, the valid methods of obtaining knowledge (such as perception, inference, or scripture) in order to under¬
stand the brahman and atman. The fourth and final chapter discusses the results of brahman realization.
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
The Sutra consists of about 560 sutras divided into four books as follows:
1. Book one discusses the theory of Brahma, and the ultimate principle, reconciling all previous views.
2. Book two discusses all the objections against the viewpoint and shows the relationship of the world and soul with the ultimate
principle, and how all eventually merge into it.
3. Book three discusses the theory of ways and means of attaining knowledge of the ultimate principle, that is, Brahmavidya.
4. Book four discusses the theory of the departure of the soul after death.
Each book is divided into four-parts called padas; the sutras of each section are related by what are called adhikaranas.
The sutras are so concise and recondite that without commentary they are scarcely to be understood. They refuse to be caught in
any definite interpretation. It is thought that Badarayana wrote them in this manner so that they would have universal appeal and
not be limited to any definite time or place, thereby serving as the source of knowledge for all peoples during all ages.
Wikipedia
The Brahma Sutras consist of 555 aphorisms or sutras, in four chapters (adhyaya), each chapter being divided into four quarters
(pada). Each quarter consists of several groups of sutras called Adhikaranas or topical sections. An Adhikarana usually consists of
several sutras, but some have only one sutra.
The first chapter (Samanvaya: harmony) explains that all the Vedanta texts talk of Brahman, the ultimate reality, which is the goal
of life. The very first sGtra offers an indication into the nature of the subject matter. VS 1.1.1 athato brahma jijnasa - Now: therefore
the inquiry (into the real nature) of Brahman.
The second chapter (Avirodha: non-conflict) discusses and refutes the possible objections to Vedanta philosophy. The third chap¬
ter (Sadhana: the means) describes the process by which ultimate emancipation can be achieved. The fourth chapter (Phala: the
fruit) talks of the state that is achieved in final emancipation.
These sutras systematize the jnanakanda (path of wisdom, as opposed to Karmakanda, the path of action) of the Veda, by com¬
bining the two tasks of concisely stating the teaching of the Veda and argumentatively establishing the specific interpretation of the
Veda adopted in the sutras.
The sutras also discuss the role of karma and God and critically address the various doctrines associated with Buddhism, Jainism,
Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Shaiva, Shakta, Atheism, and Sankhya philosophies.
Publications
Translations
Apte, V. M., tr. Brahma-sutra Shankara-Bhasya. Bombay, India: Popular Book Depot, 1960.
Badarayana & Radhakrishnan, S. 1960, The Brahma sautra, Allen & Unwin, London.
Sankaracarya, S. i. & Gambhiranada, S. 1977, Brahma Sutra Bhasya of Sankaracarya, Advaita Ashram, Calcutta.
Sivananda, S. 1949, Brahma sutras, Sivananda Publication League, Rishikesh. Baadaraayaona & Vireswarananda. 1948, Brah-
ma-sutras, with text, word-for-word translation, English rendering, comments and index, Advaita ashrama, Mayavati, Almora,
Himalayas.
Related words
Prasthana-traya
Sutra
Vedanta
Vyasa
External links
http://www.sub.uni-goettingen.de/ebene_1/fiindolo/gretil.htm#Brahm
Brahmavidya
Variant spellings
brahmavidya
brahmavidya
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
brahmavidya -
knowledge of ‘the one self-existent Being’, knowledge of Brahman, sacred knowledge; N. of an Upanishad
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Brahmavidya: The science of the Absolute. Another name for Vedanta.
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Brahma-Vidya: The Science of the Absolute as understood in the Vedantic context of non-dual wisdom.
Descriptions
General
Wikipedia
The Indian philosophy of Advaita Vedanta explains that we suffer as a result of our avidya (ignorance) and maya (misconceived,
misinterpreted views of Reality). According to this philosophy, acquiring the awareness of Brahmavidya (direct perception or
awareness of Reality) alleviates this deep source of suffering. Only this awareness directly leads us to moksha (liberation).
Brahmavidya is an ancient system of Yoga and Philosophy. In ancient Sanskrit philosophical literature the term Brahma is used to
denote the Supreme Being, which is commonly called as God, Ishwar, Bhagvan. Hence Brahmavidya is a teaching, which leads to
knowledge of Brahma - God.
This system maintains that spiritual functions are related to physiological functions of ductless glands. It emphasizes the role of
meditation in realizing the spiritual nature of a person and uses exercises involving breathing to support and nurture related phys¬
iological ability. The subconscious mind is assigned the central role in bringing about physiological and spiritual transformation.
Exercises related to the subconscious mind are therefore also crucial to this system.
Brahma-Vidya is knowledge given by Lord Krishna to Arjuna at Krukshetra Ground in Dwapur Yuga (around 5112 years back).
The same knowledge (GYAN)is given by his other Incarnations in every Yuga. The same knowledge (gyan) was given by Lord
Shri Chakradhar Swami to his followers during period 1265-1273 A.D. in Paithan, Domegram (along the river godavari) Maharash¬
tra. At, present the same Gyan is being taught to the followers of this incarnation (Shri Chakradhar Swami) in various Ashrams of
this sect known as “Mahanubhav Panth”. The ancient hand written scriptures are taught in 700 years old Lipi (coded language)
to the individuals. This vidya, knowledge, Gyan is known as Brahmavidya. It teaches about achieving MOKSHA (salvation) thru
worship of GOD (his various incarnations). The same Brahma-Vidya knowledge was given to King Yaduraj by Lord Shri Duttatreya
Prabu in Treta Yuga popularly known as 24-guru vayakhan.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Bhagavad Gita
What is the subject-matter of the Gita?
In one word we can describe it as brahmavidya, the Science of the Absolute. By Absolute we mean here that supreme knowledge
which is Self-founded and by which alone everything exists and everything is known. Until you realize this truth, you know only
relative factors.
... The eighteen chapters are arranged as spokes on the hub of brahmavidya, the Science of the Absolute. The method employed
in each chapter has, in common with the rest, the goal of the realization of the Self through Yoga.
... Does the Gita teach Yoga, or the Science of the Absolute?
Each chapter of the Gita ends with a reference to brahmavidya, yoga-sastra, and samvada. Each of these terms connotes a dif¬
ferent meaning. There is no doubt the Gita is a textbook of the Science of the Absolute, brahmavidya. The Absolute is not a thing
or an event. It gives rise to many relative notions. That means it can be approached from many angles of vision. The method of
discussion employed in the Gita is dialectical, not basically inferential. Hence it is called yoga-sastra. The literary device employed
by the author is in the form of a dialogue between Krsna as teacher and Arjuna as disciple. That is why it is called a dialogue, a
samvada.
Nataraja. Integrated Science of the Absolute
In the Vedanta of India with its textbooks such as the Bhagavad Gata and the large body of literature called the Upaniuads, we
have already stated that these books claim to be a Science of the Absolute called brahma-vidya. It is a mistake commonly made
to treat this part of wisdom literature as belonging to Hindu religion. By its dynamic and open outlook such literature refuses to be
fitted into any orthodox context of a closed and static religious set-up.
... In India brahma-vidya is referred to as the science (vidya) which is the foundation of all sciences. It deals not merely with 'truth’
but with the Truth of truths, the Light of lights, or the Value of all values. The Absolute is a natural and normative notion around
which this science was built. When stated in such a wholesale fashion the Science of the Absolute becomes repugnant to the spirit
of modernism because it appears as a seemingly totalitarian discipline. Totalitarianism in politics and religion has left a bad taste
in the mouth of most Europeans, who prefer a humbler piecemeal approach to truth. In spite of such an understandable objection,
this is in itself another form of prejudice not necessarily justified with equal force in other contexts, outside religion or politics.
Sankara tradition
Sankara. Drg-Drshya-Viveka
It is a matter of general knowledge that a Hindu not infrequently exclaims, when he finds anything supremely difficult to achieve
or understand, “It is like Brahmavidya!” This Brakmavidya, or knowledge of Brahman, the attainment of which is thought to be so
hard, is acquired only gradually, the steps being those of religion, theology including scholasticism, mysticism and philosophy
including science. All these are comprehended by the term Vedanta.
Sivananda tradition
Krishnananda. Mundaka Upanishad
Mantra No. 1: Brahma was the first among the divine beings. This Lord of all, the protector of all, imparted to his eldest son Athar-
va this Brahma-Vidya which is the basis of all sciences. Brahma-Vidya is the fundamental science because it is the explanation
and the very substance of all knowledge, the different aspects and branches of which are all lower forms of knowledge.
... Brahma-Vidya is not a knowledge which excludes other kinds of knowledge, but that which transmutes into itself all kinds of
knowledge. Spiritual knowledge means the direct experience arrived at through the fusion of the essence of the object of knowl¬
edge into the essence of the subject of knowledge. Hence spiritual knowledge is indivisible experience, not divisible like intellec¬
tual knowledge. It is intuition which does not function on the basis of duality, but is essentially a self-identical, integral experience.
Spiritual Knowledge means the essence of the knowledge of everything that exists in generality as well as in particularity. It is the
Knowledge of the highest cause, the knowledge of which means the knowledge of all its effects also.
... Brahma-Vidya is the technique or the science enabling one to reach Absolute Experience. This Knowledge is attained through
great effort in the forms of Viveka, Vichara, Vairagya and Abhyasa.
Krishnananda. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
God knew only Himself; nothing else. Not anything other than He was there, and, therefore, no chance of knowing anything other
than He could be there. Brahma-Vidya. is the knowledge of God, the science of Brahman, the Absolute. But it is not knowledge
of something. The word ‘of is to be eliminated in this sentence. Our language is inadequate to the purpose. We cannot express
this knowledge in language, because our sentences are split into the subject and the predicate. There is a subject connected by
the verb to its predicate. There is no such possibility here of describing this knowledge by the subject-object connection through
a verb. There is no verb in the sentence if we are to use a sentence for describing what God knew. When we say, God knew
Himself, it is not that God as the subject knew Himself as the object; hence a sentence is not apt for the purpose of describing
what the state of affairs was then. It was not someone knowing something, or something knowing something else. It was not the
state where one can use a sentence with a transitive verb. There was no object for the verb in the sentence, ‘It knew Itself. It
was a union of the knower and the known. It was Awareness of Being. It was Being which became aware that It was. The Being
that was, became aware that it was. It was Being-Consciousness, or the Awareness of Being Itself may be said to be God-Con¬
sciousness. That is Absolute-Consciousness; and this isthe meaning of ‘God knew Himself, ‘It knew Itself, ‘tad atmanam evavef.
It knew Itself only, and if we, too, can know only the Self in the way It knew Itself, that would be the greatest knowledge that we
can have. But, we must know ourselves in the same way as ‘It knew Itself, not as we think that we are, in the present state of
individuality, because that is a knowledge of the Subject of knowledge, which included within Its Existence every object that It has
to know, so that the usual process of knowledge does not exist in this act of knowing the object. There is no process of knowing
between the Pramata (knower) and the Prameya (known). As they say, there is no Pramana (knowing) linking the two together. It
is at once, a simultaneous Being-Consciousness. This is what the Vedanta terminology often designates as Satchidananda, i.e.,
Pure Existence-Consciousness-Blis.
... Brahma-Vidya is the science of liberation. It liberates by the very fact of its presence, and not by any other process that takes
place in the rise of that knowledge than just its existence.
Related words
Atma vidya
Vidya
Sanskrit
brahmavidya dHD l
Brahmin
Variant spellings
brahmin
brahman
Brahmana
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Brahmin — ... member of the priestly caste; priest
1. The first caste of Hindu society. The members of this caste or class are, by tradition, priests and scholars.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
brahmin -
belonging or relating to Brahman or Brahma;
‘possessing sacred knowledge’;
N. of Vishnu
Wikipedia
A Brahmin (also Brahman; Brahmana, y-' lyn ij i) is a member of the priestly class in the Indian subcontinent. According to ancient
Hindu texts including the Manusmrti, there are four “varnas”, or social classes, into which Hindu society is divided: the Brahmins
(teachers, scholars and priests), the Kshatriyas (kings and warriors), the Vaishyas (agriculturists, artisans and merchants), and the
Shudras (service providers and laborers). Brahmins are charged with performing religious duties as priests and preaching Dharma
as “one who prays, a devout or religious man, a Brahman who is well versed in Vedic texts, one versed in sacred knowledge”. The
Brahmins held authority of interpretation of Vedic and Puranic spiritual texts like the Vedas, Upanishads and Bhagavad-Gita.
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Brahmin: One who conforms to the religion of the Vedas and initiated or confirmed by the bestowal of the sacred thread which
causes him to be known as a “ twice-born” (dwija) and fit thereby to assist at ceremonies of burnt offerings to the Gods of the
Vedas. Socially he is the highest of the types of castes statically viewed in the Indian world of caste hierarchies, the others being
Kshatriya (warrior), Vaishya (merchant) and Shudra (servant). Vedic learning and ritual accompanied the Brahmin as priest in the
formation of society as it stratified with the penetration of the Aryans into the Indian matrix, about 1500 B.C.
Descriptions
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Brahmin (Brahman)
A Brahmin is a member of the hereditary priestly class of India. ... In Sanskrit the same Vedic word designates prayer and the one
who prays, the overseer of the Vedic ritual and its MANTRAS. In the ancient VARNA or class system the Brahmin was said to
emerge from the mouth of the divine being, the warrior from his arms, the ordinary people from his thighs, and the servants from
his feet.
Originally, Brahminical status was ensured by Vedic authority. Brahmins were responsible for the transmission of the VEDAS
over the centuries via oral tradition within Brahminical families. This assured Brahminical authority over all ritual, since it was only
through knowledge of the Vedas that the rituals could be performed. All public rituals had to be supervised by Brahmins and all
private rituals could be learned only from Brahmins.
... If there is a stereotypical or ideal role for a Brahmin in the modern world it is teaching. Transmission of knowledge is the tradi¬
tional role of the Brahmin and remains so today. Brahmins continue to perform the rituals at all the great temples in India, but the
role of ritualist is now viewed as less important for Brahmins than the role of teacher or preceptor.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Brahmin
In the traditional Hindu theory of the four major social groups (varnas), the brahmins are the group with the highest status, based
on the belief that they are purer than all others. This belief is based on the creation story known as the Purusha Sukta, in which
the brahmins are created from the Primeval Man’s mouth. The mouth is part of the head and thus the highest part of the body, and
it is also associated with speech, one of the definitively human faculties. From the earliest Hindu recorded history, brahmins have
been associated with speech and the sacred word; they were the scholars, priests, ritual technicians, and protectors of sacred
learning. This is still true in modern times, although there are also many brahmins who have other occupations, such as trade,
business, and government service.
Aside from their traditional association with sacred learning, their other source of social status is their ritual purity, which is be¬
lieved to be greater than that of all other human beings. This ritual purity is inherent, conferred by birth. According to tradition,
even an uneducated brahmin should be considered a “god on earth,” whereas a learned brahmin is more sacred still. This ritual
purity makes brahmins preferable for service to many of the gods of the Hindu pantheon, since they are considered the best inter¬
mediaries to “insulate” the deities from ordinary people. Although brahmins as a whole have the highest status, within the brahmin
community there are highly defined subgroups (jatis), which are often defined by region of origin.
Wikipedia
The history of the Brahmin community in India begins with the Vedic religion of early Hinduism, now often referred to by Hindus as
Sanatana Dharma. The Vedas are the primary source of knowledge for brahmin practices. Most sampradayas of Brahmins take
inspiration from the Vedas. According to orthodox Hindu tradition, the Vedas are apauruseya and anadi (beginning-less), but are
revealed truths of eternal validity.
... Brahmins are also called Vipra “inspired”, or Dvija “twice-born”.
Due to the diversity in regional, religious traditions and the Vedic schools which they belong to, Brahmins are further divided into
various sub-castes. Not all Brahmins are priests; only a subset of brahmins are involved in the priestly duties, with vedic learning,
ascetic and humble living. Brahmins have been practicing other professions since late Vedic ages like doctors, smiths, lawyers,
engineers, warriors, writers, poets, landlords, ministers, etc. Many Brahmins have emigrated to other parts of the world in sizable
numbers, particularly to the USA, UK, Canada and Australia.
... In 1931 (the last Indian census to record caste), Brahmins accounted for 4.32% of the total population. Even in Uttar Pradesh,
where they were most numerous, Brahmins constituted just 12% of the recorded population. In Andhra Pradesh, they formed less
than 2%; in Tamil Nadu they formed less than 3%. In Kerala, Nambudiri Brahmins make up 0.7% of the population. According to
the 2001 census, Brahmins constitute less than 4.1% of the Indian population.
See also:
Semantics and pronunciation
Etymology
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
The term is derived from the Vedic word BRAHMAN, which means (among other things) “prayer.”
Wikipedia
The English word brahmin is an anglicised form of the Sanskrit word Brahmana.
Related words
Brahmana
Ksatriya
Sanskrit
Brahmin —
brahmin- ^ qhR
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
Title variants
Brhadaranyaka Upanisad —
Brhadaranyaka upanisad -
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad name is literally translated as “great-forest- teaching”.
Descriptions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Brhadaranyaka Upanisad — ... “sitting down nearby (the scripture of) the great forest”
1. This Upanisad belongs to the Satapatha Brahmana of the Sukla Yajur Veda. The theme of this Upanisad is the nondifference
of the Absolute (Brahman) and the individual (Atman). It is the largest Upanisad and is considered great (brhad) due both to its
length and its profundity. It consists of three sections (kanda), each having two chapters. The Madhu Kanda expounds the basic
identity of the individual self with the Universal Self. The Muni Kanda (Yajnavalkya Kanda) provides the philosophical justification
of the teaching. The Khila Kanda deals with certain modes of worship and meditation (upasana, sravana, manana, nididhydsana)
and contains much information per meditation. This Upanisad also contains the mahavakya, aham brahmasmi. Noble personages
found in this Upanisad include MaitreyT, GargT, Janaka, and Yajnavalkya.
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. 700 B.C.E.) The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is a classical UPANISHAD connected to the White
YAJUR VEDA. It is probably the oldest of the classical Upanishads and retains much material on ancient Vedic ritual, which the
later classical Upanishads ignore.
Wikipedia
The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad is one of the older, “primary” (mukhya) Upanishads. It is contained within the Shatapatha Brahma¬
na, and its status as an independent Upanishad may be considered a secondary extraction of a portion of the Brahmana text. This
makes it one of the old texts of the Upanishad corpus, dating to roughly the 8th to 5th centuries BCE. It is largely the oldest Upa¬
nishad, excluding some parts which were composed after the Chandogya and the largely neglected Jaminiya Upanisad Brahma¬
na. It is associated with the Shukla Yajurveda. It figures as number 10 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads and was notably
commented upon by Adi Shankara.
Diagram: Summary of Vedic literature
Author(s)
[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad] is ascribed to Yajnavalkya.
Synopsis
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
The work opens with a meditation on the ashva medha, or HORSE SACRIFICE, seeing the horse itself as universal reality in all its
particulars. This is a feature that is well established in the earlier BRAHMANA literature, which focused on the deeper meaning of
ritual.
The Upanishad contains a cosmogony of the Ultimate Self or ATMAN as it differentiates into worldly reality. It also preserves sev¬
eral ancient dialogues about the nature of the universe, the atman, and the BRAHMAN. Particularly, it contains the disquisitions or
answers of the famous sage YAJNAVALKYA to these questions.
In the course of this Upanishad, the doctrine of the two forms of brahman, the formed and the formless, is outlined (Bri. 2.3. 1-6).
This doctrine is repeated in later Upanishads and is a central issue in the thought of later VEDANTA. Brihadaranyaka also pres¬
ents for the first time the image of the divine reality as a spider and the worldly reality its spun web or threads (Bri. 2.1.20). In the
course of one of Yajnavalka’s dialogues, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad also outlines, perhaps for the first time, the three levels
of consciousness: waking (jagarita), dreaming sleep (svapna), and deep sleep (sushupti). (The fourth level appears to be a later
development: turiya, the transcendent state of consciousness.) The work also outlines (Bri. 4.4. 3-6) the first extended discourse
on REINCARNATION and KARMA, as well as the karmic paths of the Sun and Moon: liberation is the path via the Sun and rein¬
carnation is the path via the Moon (Bri. 6.2. 16). Finally, it introduces the negative description of the brahman as being “Not thus,
not thus” (NETI NETI) (Bri. 4.5.15.).
Wikipedia
[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad] includes three sections, namely, Madhu Kanda, Muni Kanda (or Yajnavalkya Kanda) and Khila Kan¬
da. The Madhu Kanda explains the teachings of the basic identity of the individual or jiva and the Atman. Muni Kanda includes the
conversations between the sage Yajnavalkya and his wife, Maitreyi. Various methods of worship and meditation are dealt in the
Khila Kanda. The doctrine of “neti neti” (“neither this, nor that”) and a often quoted verse, “Asato Maa” is found in this Upanishad.
Publications
Translations
In: Deussen, P., Bedekar, V. M. & Palsule, G. B. 1997, Sixty Upanishads Of The Veda (2 Vols.), Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
(Pvt. Ltd).
In: Hume, R. E. & Haas, G. C. O. 1995, The thirteen principal Upanishads : translated from the Sanskrit, with an outline of the phi¬
losophy of the Upanishads and an annotated bibliography, Oxford University Press, Delhi; Oxford.
Nitya Chaitanya, Y. 1993, The Brhadaranyaka Upanisad : with original text in Roman transliteration, English translation and ap¬
pendices, {D.K.} Printworld.
Madhva, Vasu, S. C. & Bhattacharya, R. 1974, The Brihadaranyaka Upanisad, AMS Press, [New York],
In: Radhakrishnan, S. 1953, The principal Upanishads, Harper, New York.
Sivananda. 1985, The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad : Sanskrit text, English translation, and commentary, Divine Life Society, Shiva-
nandanagar, Distt. Tehri-Garhwal, U.P., India.
In: Swami Nikhilananda, The Upanishads: Katha, Isa, Kena, Mundaka, Svetasvatara, Prasha, Mandukya, Aitareya, Brihadaranya¬
ka, Taittiriya, and Chhandogya, 4 vols., New York: Harper & Row, 1964
Related words
Mahavakya: Aham Brahma Asmi
Upanishads
Yajur Veda
Buddhi
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Buddhi — ... intellect; the discriminative faculty
1. The ascertaining intelligence and the impersonal or superpersonal state of consciousness of a limited individual.
2. The first evolute of primordial Nature (prakrti).lt is the basis of the intelligence of the individual. It is the determinative faculty and
by it one resolves upon a course of action. (See antahkarana.)
3. According to Nyaya-Vaisesika, it is of two kinds: recollection (smrti) and experience (anubhava).
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
buddhi -
the power of forming and retaining conceptions and general notions, intelligence, reason, intellect, mind, discernment, judgement;
perception (of which 5 kinds are enumerated, or with manas 6; cf. indriya, buddhindriya);
comprehension, apprehension, understanding;
(with atnanah, or buddhir brahml) knowledge of one’s self, psychology;
(in Sarhkhya phil.) Intellect (= adhy-avasaya, the intellectual faculty or faculty of mental perception, the second of the 25 Tattvas;
cf. buddhi-tattva);
presence of mind, ready wit;
an opinion, view, notion, idea, conjecture;
thought about or meditation on (loc. or comp.), intention, purpose, design;
impression, belief, notion;
right opinion, correct or reasonable view;
a kind of metre;
N. of the 5th astrol. mansion;
Intelligence personified (as a daughter of Daksha and wife of Dharma and mother of Bodha)
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Buddhi is a technical term in the SAMKHYA YOGA system that refers to discriminative intellect. Ultimately, one seeks to calm the
mind so that the discriminative intellect or buddhiwill be able to discern the clear division between the self or soul and the whirling
world of phenomena. This discernment is a crucial step in the liberation of the self from the cycle of birth and rebirth. The buddhi is
considered to have the greatest predominance of sattva (purity) of anything in existence. Ultimately, however, liberation can occur
only when buddhi,too, is transcended (in consciousness), as it too is part of the world of phenomena and, in its own way, a hin¬
drance to the highest spiritual realization.
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
INTELLIGENCE (buddhi) is the power of forming and retaining conceptions and general notions, the faculty of the mind to discern,
judge, comprehend, apprehend, and understand the meaning :>f right knowledge. It is that power of man which enables him to
contemplate the eternal.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Buddhi This word refers to the mental faculty often translated as “intellect,” but it carries connotations beyond mere knowledge.
The buddhi is the intellectual capability for awareness, mental perception, and decision-making, and as such it is the basis for all
cognitive thought. In the account of evolution found in the Samkhya philosophical school, buddhi is one stage in the evolution of
the human personality and the external world. In the Samkhya account, buddhi is the first faculty to emerge from prakrti, or “primal
matter,” and is also known by the name mahat (the “great one”). The mental processes facilitated by buddhi spur the development
of the next stage of evolution,ahamkar, or “subjective consciousness.” In more colloquial language, buddhi describes the overall
quality of a person’s mind, whether it is wholesome or unwholesome, sound or unsound.
Wikipedia
Buddhi is that faculty of mind, discriminative in nature (^riRrf^iyHiciHRi ■'iRd-'tddl)', which is able to discern truth from falsehood
and which makes wisdom possible.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Buddhi - Understanding. Also denotes the reasoning faculty of mind.
Descriptions
General
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
The first stage of this synthetic unit called Mind (Citta) is buddhi, derived from budh> “to wake up, recover consciousness, ob¬
serve.” Here the term is used to mean the seat of intelligence, the intuitive capacity of the individual, his means of direct percep¬
tion. It accounts for the capacity of illumination, abstraction, determination, certainty. It is the seat of virtue, non-attachment and
wisdom. It manifests itself through determination, resolution in thought and action, formation and retention of concepts and gen¬
eralizations. It is the last to act in all cognitional, affectional, and volitional processes of the ego (ahamkara), mind (manas), and
senses (indriyas). It is the sole basis for knowing, willing, feeling and resolving. It is the background or mere awareness, without
thought of “I.” When the mind (manas) is registering the objects of thought, it is the intelligence (buddhi) that discriminates, de¬
termines, and recognizes. In contemplation, the mind (manas) raises the objects of thought, and the intelligence (buddhi) dwells
upon them.
Wikipedia
It corresponds to the Platonic conception of nous and just as that faculty plays a central role in salvation within Orthodox Christian¬
ity within Buddhism, Yoga and orthodox Hinduism Buddhi plays a central role in the attainment of liberation (moksha) or enlighten¬
ment (bodhi).
Buddhi makes its first scriptural appearance in the Katha Upanisad (1,3) where it is compared in a famous simile to the driver of
a horse and carriage, where the reins held by the driver represent the lower mind (manas); the horses represent the five senses
and the carriage itself - the body. Ontologically, buddhi is equivalent to hiranyagarbha and is to individual living souls - jivas - as
hiranyagarbha is to the insentient phenomena of the universe. Buddhi is that dimension (or pole) of the heart/mind (chitta) which is
attracted to Brahman. The other ‘pole’ of chitta is called manas and is characterised by an attraction to form and ego- construction
(ahamkara). Manas, through identification with matter and desire for sensual pleasures (kama) causes the incarnation of Brahman
into material existence as an individual soul. Buddhi, through wisdom (prajna) and discernment (vitarka}, leads an incarnate soul
in the opposite direction dissolving identification with material phenomena with cessation of corresponding worldly desires (vairag-
ya) and eventually attaining liberation (moksha).
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Bhagavad Gita
Buddhi,or intellect, is that special aspect of consciousness originating from purusa, the pure Spirit. It becomes conjoined with
mind, which is an evolute of the ego, acted upon by the three gunas: sattva, rajas, and tamas. This conjunction of intelligence and
mind works for the good when the mind becomes subservient to intelligence. On the other hand, when intelligence becomes a tool
in the hands of the mind, which is already vitiated by the colourations of past impressions, it loses its efficacy to release the lower
self from bondage and becomes durmati, perverted intelligence. In this state the individual, who is helplessly caught in the impera¬
tiveness of action and cannot recognize it as merely belonging to the field, mistakes it for the action of the Self.
Why is the intelligence of such a person qualified as akrta buddhi, unfinished intelligence?
The proper function of buddhi, intelligence, is to discern right from wrong, the Self from the non- Self, and the eternal from the
transient. If buddhi fails to do this it is akrta buddhi, unfinished intelligence.
Some people, like John Locke, think that when a child is born it comes into the world with a mind as blank as a clean slate, a tabu¬
la rasa. / / this is true, the power to discern must come as an acquired or learned skill. Also, the scope to train intelligence being
unlimited, shouldn’t all people be considered to have unfinished intelligence?
This is not the view of present-day scientists and psychologists. Sir Karl Popper writes:
This idea [of tabula rasa] is not merely mistaken, but grotesquely mistaken: we have only to remember the ten thousand million
neurons of our cerebral cortex, some of them (the cortical pyramidal cells) each with an “estimated total of ten thousand” synaptic
links. These may be said to represent the material traces of our inherited and almost entirely unconscious knowledge, selected by
evolution. Although there is really no method of comparing the two (this is so in general with the nature versus nurture problem) I
should be intuitively inclined to say that the huge amount of information we can acquire in a lifetime through our senses is small
compared with the amount of this inherited background of potentialities.*
What is referred to as “inherited and almost entirely unconscious knowledge” is treated by the Vedantin as superconsciousness
coming from the Ground, sat-cit-fmanda. It is the continuation of life. It reaches its teleologic goal only when the awareness of the
individual is brought to its final fruition of total emancipation. Until this is achieved it is akrta buddhi, unfinished intelligence.
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
There is another aspect of our consciousness which comes to a decision: “ This is such-and-such.” The part making the decision
is called the intellect. In Malayalam it is mati. In Sanskrit grammar we have nirdesika, pratigrahika and sambandhika. Nirdesika is
that which integrates, pratigrahika is that which you grasp or learn or understand, and sambandhika is that which relates one thing
to another. Corresponding to these three in Vedanta are three categories of mind: the questioning aspect, manas; the recalling
aspect, cittam; and the deciding aspect, buddhi. In logic, these are called the subject, the copula and the predicate: the subject is
interrogative or suggestive, the copula is relative, and the predicate is the decisive.
Now, just what kind of decision is the intellect making? It is deciding what name should be given to what form. It is coordinat¬
ing a name and a form, a mental image and a corresponding word symbol. When you say “ this is a pot,” there is an image of a
pot, which is a concept. ‘ Pot’ is a sound which revives an image from your consciousness. The image is then conjoined with the
sound. The intellect is finalizing, out of a series of concepts, one which is most appropriate for each situation. This is then under¬
lined and promoted as “ the” concept.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
D.: How to get peace?
M.: That is the natural state. The mind obstructs the innate peace. Our investigation is only in the mind. Investigate the mind; it will
disappear.
There is no entity by name mind. Because of the emergence of thoughts we surmise something from which they start. That we
term mind. When we probe to see what it is, there is nothing like it. After it has vanished, Peace will be found to remain eternal.
D.: What is buddhi (intellect)?
M.: The thinking or discriminating faculty. These are mere names. Be it the ego, the mind or the intellect, it is all the same. Whose
mind? Whose intellect? The ego’s. Is the ego real? No. We confound the ego and call it intellect or mind.
Sankara tradition
Sadananda. Vedantasara, tr. Nikhilananda
65. Intellect (Buddhi) is that modification of the internal instrument (Antahkarana) which determines [the real nature of an object].
See: Antahkarana, manas, citta, buddhi, ahankara
Buddhi and purusha
General
Hiriyanna. Outlines of Indian philosophy
[Sankhya]... what is the soul that can be thought of as the subject of experience in this system? We have the purusa, no doubt,
but it really remains external to everything and cannot therefore stand for the subject of experience. There is another element that
serves as an important aid in the process of knowing, viz. mahat or buddhi; but that is equally unsuited to be the subject though
for quite a different reason. It is non-sentient (jada) being derived from prakrti, and experience cannot therefore be ascribed to it.
Though neither by itself can serve as the subject, it is stated, they do so together, the buddhi contributing all the activity involved in
it and the purusa the element of awareness (caitanya). The purusa illumines or is reflected in the buddhi, which though physical is
fine enough to receive the reflection; and, thus illumined, it serves as the conscious subject. The buddhi may therefore be viewed
as the physical medium for the manifestation of spirit. We may call their unity in this sense the empirical self to distinguish it from
the purusa or the transcendental self. Owing to such association, each of the two elements in the empirical self appears complete¬
ly transmuted—nonsentient buddhi becoming sentient, as it were, and passive purusa, active. The illustration commonly given in
this connection is the ‘red-hot iron ball’ where the formless glow of fire appears spherical and cold iron, hot. Every jnana is a state
of this blend. When we consider its two parts separately, the modification of the buddhi which such a state involves is called a vrtti
and the reflection of the purusa in it jnana. Owing to the felt identity of the two elements, the vrtti also is sometimes designated
jnana.
See: Sushupti and Buddhi
See also:
Evolution of prakriti (Sankhya)
in Manas and avidya: Sankara. Vivekachudamani Tr. Chatterji
in Vijnanamaya kosha: Dayananda. Talks on Vivekachudamani
in Sadhana: Nitya. Principles and practice of Patanjalis Yoga
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
buddhi -... from the verb root budh = “to enlighten, to know”
Wikipedia
buddhi is a feminine Sanskrit noun derived from the same root (budh - to be awake; to understand; to know) as its more familiar
masculine form Buddha.
Related words
Antahkarana
Cit
Citta
Manas
Vijnanamaya kosha
Sanskrit
Buddhi -5%
buddhi - fTStT
Buddhi-yoga
Descriptions
General
Dasgupta. A history of Indian philosophy
The primary sense of the word yoga in the Gita is derived from the root yujir yoge or yuj, to join, with which is connected in a neg¬
ative way the root yuj in the sense of controlling or restricting anything to that to which it is joined. Joining, as it means contact with
something, also implies disjunction from some other thing. When a particular type of mental outlook or scheme of action is recom¬
mended, we find the word buddhi-yoga used, which simply means that one has intimately to associate oneself with a particular
type of wisdom or mental outlook.
The word buddhi-yoga is also used at least three times, in II. 49, x. 10 and XVIII. 57 [Gita ].
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Bhagavad Gita
(Bhagavadgita, Ch.X, 10)
To such established in unbroken union (with) affectionate adoration, I grant that kind of unitive understanding by which they attain
to Me.
The result or reward of this dedication is not anything of the order of a siddhi (spiritual attainment) as usually mentioned in books
on yoga, including such respectable treatises as Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras. This and the next verse refer to an award which might
appear too simple or plain. It is of the order of Self-realization or what is here called buddhi-yoga (unitive understanding).
This is a special phrase which runs throughout the Gita and is employed and extolled as early as ii, 49, where it is contrasted with
mere karma (action, ritual, works) which is condemned there as very inferior. In vi, 43 the term again appears, where it is em¬
ployed in a more technical sense, suggesting that one fallen from yoga re-establishes a link with it through the medium of intelli¬
gence or reason.
Here in this verse we find the expression used, it would seem, with the same intended precision. The same expression is used in
xviii, 57 in summing up the whole teaching, which is sufficient support for its importance as a significant phrase. Moreover in x, 4
we find buddhi (reason) occupying premier place among the unique values whose source is the Absolute. The gift of intelligence
or reason is the greatest which God could confer on man, according to the teaching of the Gita.
Nataraja. Integrated Science of the Absolute
The division made in the Bhagavad-Gita (III.3) refers to the kind of principle of classification of the two kinds of Yoga and conforms
and justifies the same when it says that the Yoga of wisdom of the Sankhyans and the Yoga of action of the Patanjali yogins, are
the two main disciplines found in this world since ancient times. The Yoga of wisdom has also other descriptive titles applied to it,
such as jnana- yajna (the wisdom-sacrifice), Sankhya-yoga (meditation based on reason), tyaga (renunciation), sannyasa (more
mature renunciation), buddhi (discrimination), buddhi yoga (meditation based on discrimination), akarma (non-ritualism), naiu-
karmya (non-activity), and kevala-jnana (plain and simple wisdom).
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
The Reality sought is one that appears as all phenomena both subjective and objective, the former pertaining to mind and the
latter to matter. Of the Reality, these two aspects alone are recognizable. Hence these alone are the references available to lead
the seeker to the Reality. Reality as such, remains imperceptible and, therefore, unreferable. The only way therefore to attain the
core of the Reality is pointing out the two referable aspects to the seeker and leaving to him or her the job of intuitively perceiving
what lies hidden in between . This must be accomplished on one’s own. The way could well be compared to knowing what the
content and value of a coin is, by making use of both its sides. Neither of the sides reveals the total content and value of the coin.
Yet without both the sides the coin would be no coin, nor could it be recognized as a coin. The real value and content of it is brack¬
eted by the two sides. Brahman, likewise, is a coin which has the subjective and objective aspects of appearance for its two sides
or references. This subjective-objective duality is apparent both in the being of oneself and of the world as a whole. Realizing that
which is in between the two, that remains always as if bracketed by the two, is our goal. The two apparent aspects, in the present
enquiry, are to be treated as two counterparts of a dialectical situation, somewhat like the two poles of a single magnet. Pointing
out these two counterparts correctly and leaving the job of seeking and meditatively perceiving what is between those poles, which
is to be done by the seeker on his or her own, is the only way open to a guide or master. This method has always been relied
upon by all seers and gurus, even from the time of the Upanisads. Narayana Guru is no exception.
Subject and object are not the only discernible dialectical pairs; micro-cosm (anu) and macro- cosm (akhandam) form yet another
pair, and so do many others.
... Intuitively perceiving the unitive Reality by making use of its own two manifest aspects of opposite nature, is the only method
helpful in seeking brahman, and it is called yoga- buddhi in the Bhagavad Gita. The one who is fully conversant with its application
and its result is called yoga- yukta, literally the one already united through yoga. The implication is that the effective using of the
method results in the effacement of the seeker, who becomes merged in what is sought. The same method in the West has been
well known as “dialectics” even from the time of Plato.
Summary of Above
The Reality searched for is cit in essence; the seeking mind is cit in essence; the seeker knowing Reality therefore means, cit
knowing cit. There being no two cit-s, this knowing, in effect, is none other than the knower becoming merged in the known, or the
the knower becoming the known or the other way around. It is simply an intuitive experience of the transparency of mere being¬
ness.
The method relied on by the Guru in the search for Realityor atma thus apparently is that of interiorizing one’s perception, and
then resorting to dialectical reasoning, rather than to linear logical reasoning.
Peculiarity of the Method
An all-comprehensive science has to have an all comprehensive method of enquiry or rather methodology of its own. An absolutist
science has to have an absolutist method of its own. No method that works with any of the ordinary sciences we are familiar with
will cope with an absolutist science that has to be a Science of all sciences.
Relying on no “other”, interiorized perception is not relative, and hence is absolutist in nature. The self is the most certain of all
entities that one is undeniaby sure, exists. Therefore, knowing oneself is the surest means of knowing what Reality is.
Ramakrishna tradition
Nirmalananda. Bhagavad Gita
“Now learn this buddhi yoga, declared to you in the Sankhya philosophy. By the yoga of the buddhi [or: by uniting the buddhi in
yoga], you shall rid [free] yourself of the bondage of karma.” (2:39)
Buddhi yoga
Buddhi is the intellect, understanding, and reason. It is not just the thinking mind, it is the understanding mind, the seat of intelli¬
gence and wisdom. Buddhi Yoga, then is the Yoga of Intelligence which later came to be called Jnana Yoga, the Yoga of Knowl¬
edge. We have four levels of being, and the buddhi-also called the jnanamaya kosha-is one of the highest. So a buddhi yogi has
his consciousness centered in the higher levels of his being. And he uses his buddhi to extend that yoga even higher into that
level which is virtually indistinguishable from spirit. From then on Self-realization is assured. Yoga and Sankhya are inseparable,
so buddhi yoga involves meditation as its paramount aspect. A Buddha is a successful buddha yogi. Unprejudiced reading of the
Pali Sutras of Buddhism will reveal that Buddha was not only an Aryan, he was a classical Sankhya philosopher, a buddhi yogi.
Anyone who wishes to follow Buddha must be the same. (Just as anyone who wishes to follow Christ must follow Sanatana Dhar-
ma as found in the Gita. Then he, too, will be a follower of Sankhya and a practicer of Yoga.)
“Yoga” comes from the Sanskrit root yuj, which means to join or connect or even to unite in the sense of making many into one.
It can also mean to bring together. But in the scriptures of India it always is applied in a spiritual sense, meaning both union with
God and the way by which that union is effected. Yoga, then is both spiritual life and the culmination of spiritual life. Yoga is union
with the Supreme Being, or any practice that makes for such union.
According to Krishna, the direct effect of buddhi yoga is the dissolving of karmic bonds created by past actions (karmas) and the
freeing of the yogi from the compulsion to future karmas-binding actions. So we should look at karma itself.
Buddhi yoga is the state in which desire can no longer arise, being eclipsed by awareness of the spirit-Self. These are high ideals
virtually beyond our present comprehension, but not beyond our attainment.
Buddhi Yoga is the Yoga of Intelligence which later came to be called Jnana Yoga, the Yoga of Knowledge.
Krishna does not bother with short-sighted strategies, but tells us to literally “shoot for the top,” saying: “Seek refuge in buddhi!” In
this instance buddhi means in the state of consciousness that is attained through-and is-buddhi yoga. (Actually the Sanskrit word
is buddhau, which means the consciousness that is the buddhi.)
Sankara tradition
Sankara. Bhagavad Gita. Tr.Panoli
Buddhi-Yoga = the state of steady restraint of the mind. Resorting to that Buddhi-Yoga and surrenderingto none else, you fix your
heart ever on Me.
See also:
Yoga and dialectics
Related words
Jnana Yoga
Sanskrit
buddhi-yoga -
c
Catuspada, Four States of Consciousness
Variant spellings
catuspada
catushpada
catuspada
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
catuspada -
4 padas;
4 partitions or divisions;
quadruped;
consisting of 4 Padas;
consisting of 4 words;
comprising 4 partitions or divisions;
tetranomial;
a quadruped;
a kind of coitus;
certain zodiacal signs;
N. of a shrub;
N. of a particular Karana
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
In the course of one of Yajnavalka’s dialogues, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad also outlines, perhaps for the first time, the three
levels of consciousness: waking (jagarita), dreaming sleep (svapna), and deep sleep (sushupti). (The fourth level appears to be a
later development: turiya, the transcendent state of consciousness.)
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Brhadaranyaka Upanisad
The four tier theory is presented in the Mandukya Upanisad and the Mandukya Karika of Gaudapada. Sankara, being the grand
disciple of Gaudapada, subscribes to the theory of the surface consciousness as Jagrat, dream consciousness as svapna and
deep sleep as susupti. There is a transcendence where the consciousness is unwound so it has homogeneity and remains with
the fourth, the turiya. In all the other Upanisads, including the Brhadaranyaka, the fourth state is not mentioned.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
M.: ... when you identify yourself with the body as in jagrat you see gross objects; when in subtle body or in mental plane as in
svapna, you see objects equally subtle; in the absence of identification as in sushupti you see nothing. The objects seen bear a
relation to the state of the seer. The same applies to visions of God.
By long practice the figure of God, as meditated upon, appears in dream and may later appear in jagrat also.
M.: There are different methods of approach to prove the unreality of the universe. The example of the dream is one among them.
Jagrat, svapna and sushupti are all treated elaborately in the scripture in order that the Reality underlying them might be revealed.
It is not meant to accentuate differences among the three states. The purpose must be kept clearly in view.
Descriptions
General
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
Hindu tradition teaches that there are four states of consciousness. These are indicated by the names of the waking state, the
dream state, the deep sleep state, and the fourth state. The waking state represents the consciousness of the physical plane and
body, the dream state the consciousness of “the middle region”, consisting of feelings and lower mind, the deep sleep state the
spiritual consciousness, and “the fourth state” the “essential” consciousness. In other words, the four states represent conscious¬
ness in the Five Elements, the Elements Water and Fire being taken together.
As the West views consciousness, the three states of waking, dreaming and sleep are actual physical phenomena, but from the
point of view of Hinduism the states, as described, are symbols for psychological realities rather than the actualities themselves.
Emotion and thought are forms of “dreaming” both from the point of view of the consciousness of the physical world and brain and
from the angle of vision of “superconsciousness”; and spiritual activity is as mysterious as sleep to the conscious mind.
It is clear that modern conceptions of “consciousness” are very different from the traditional conceptions of old. The “waking state
of consciousness” is what modern thinkers call “consciousness”. What is now called “super-consciousness”, the men of old, who
thought and lived in terms of Tradition, called “consciousness” proper. The word “proper” is most appropriate, for it means natural,
genuine and pure, — and consciousness, as it is in its true state, is natural and genuine, pure and undefiled. ...
Hindu tradition teaches that when Consciousness comes down into the Elements, it assumes various veils. It veils itself consecu¬
tively in material of the Element Air, of the Element Fire and of the Element Water. Finally, in the physical brain, the outer cover, it
manifests as waking consciousness.
Traditionally these veils are conceived either as “vehicles” or “bodies”, in an objective sense, as meant above, or in a subjective
sense, in which they indicate elements that hide pure consciousness and bare truth.
... The “deep sleep” which the Lord God caused to fall upon man, symbolizes “spiritual consciousness”. From the point of view
of “the waking consciousness”, that is, the ordinary consciousness of the world and the body, spiritual consciousness is some¬
thing dark and mysterious, hence it is associated with sleep. It is placed in the unconscious, in other words. It is possible to trace
thought and follow it up in its sequence of causes and effects and associations, but it is not possible to trace the working of spiri¬
tual consciousness, at least rationally. The function of intuition, which belongs to “spiritual consciousness”, works in a moment of
time, in a manner which must simply be accepted by the rational function. The function of faith and insight, which is one higher
than intuition, works even more mysteriously, symbolized generally by “in a flash”. To the waking consciousness intuition and in¬
spiration appear to come from the unconscious. Hence spiritual consciousness is symbolized by “deep sleep”. The symbolism also
implies the perfect peace and restfulness of the spiritual function, to which all the problems and complexes of the emotional plane
and the lower mind are foreign.
Muller. The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy
... we come across an original idea of Indian philosophy, the doctrine of the four states, the state of being awake, the state of
dreaming, the state of deep and dreamless sleep, to which is added as the fourth, the state of death. In the first state the Atman
is supposed to be perceiving and acting by means of the Manas and the Indriyas. In the second the Indriyas cease to act, but the
Manas remains active, and the Atman, joined to the Manas, moves through the veins of the body and sees dreams made out of
the remnants of former impressions (Vasanas). The third state arises from a complete separation of Atman from Manas and Indri¬
yas. While these are absorbed in the vital spirit, which remains in full activity, the Atman in the heart is supposed to have for a time
become one with Brahman, but to return unchanged at the time of awakening. In the fourth or disembodied state the Atman with
the Sukshma-sarira is supposed to escape from the heart through a vein in the head or through the hundred veins of the body,
and then to take, according to merit and knowledge, different paths into the next life.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Psychology of Darsanamala
The four states of consciousness according to Vedanta can also be superimposed on the coordinate axes. Waking conscious¬
ness, jagrat, corresponds to the horizontal positive, while the dream state, svapna, is placed at the horizontal negative. Susupti,
the deep sleep state, is placed at the vertical negative, and turiya, the transcendental, is represented by the vertical positive. Thus
the horizontal covers the range of perceptual values from objectivity on the plus side to subjectivity on the negative, and the verti¬
cal comprises conceptual values which rise from the alpha to the omega in a graded series. Such is the frame of reference which
comprises the core of the Science of the Absolute, of which Darsanamala is a textbook.
Nitya. Saundaryalahari of Sankaracarya
In the Mandukya Upanisad the Absolute is described as catuspada, the four-limbed. The Absolute that is symbolized with aum
also has four quarters. They are the four aspects of consciousness: the wakeful or objective, the dream or subjective, the uncon¬
scious, and the transcendental.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Maharshis Gospel
M: You exist in sushupti without being associated with the body and the mind, but in the other two states you are associated with
them. If you were one with the body, how could you exist without the body in sushupti? You can separate yourself from what is
external to you but not from that which is one with you. Hence the ego cannot be one with the body. This must be realised in the
waking state. The three states are studied in order to gain this knowledge.
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
There are five states for the individual. They are: (1) Jagrat, (2) Swapna, (3) Sushupti, (4) Turiya, (5) Turyatita. Of these the jagrat
is the waking state. In it the jiva in the Visva aspect and the Lord in the Virat aspect, abiding together in the eight petals of the
Heart lotus, function through the eyes and enjoy novel pleasures from various objects by means of all the senses, organs, etc. The
five gross elements which are widespread, the ten senses, the five vital airs, the four inner faculties, the twenty-four fundamen¬
tals - all these together form the gross body. The jagrat state is characterised by satva guna denoted by the letter A and presided
over by the deity Vishnu. The swapna is the dream state in which the jiva in the Taijasa aspect and the Lord in the Hiranyagarbha
aspect, abiding together in the corolla of the Heart-Lotus, function in the neck and experience through the mind the results of the
impressions collected in the waking state. All the principles, the five gross elements, the will and the intellect, seventeen in all, to¬
gether form the subtle body of the dream which is characterised by the rajo guna denoted by the letter U and presided over by the
deity Brahma, so say the wise.
The sushupti is the state of deep sleep in which the jiva in the Prajna aspect and the Lord in the Isvara aspect, abiding together in
the stamen of the Heart-Lotus, experience the bliss of the Supreme by means of the subtle avidya (nescience). Just as a hen after
roaming about in the day calls the chicks to her, enfolds them under her wings and goes to rest for the night, so also the subtle
individual being, after finishing the experiences of the jagrat and swapna for the time being, enters with the impressions gathered
during those states into the causal body which is made up of nescience, characterised by tamo guna, denoted by the letter M and
presided over by the deity Rudra.
Deep sleep is nothing but the experience of pure being. The three states go by different names, such as the three regions, the
three forts, the three deities, etc. The being always abides in the Heart, as stated above. If in the jagrat state the Heart is not relin¬
quished, the mental activities are stilled and Brahman alone is contemplated, the state is called the Turiya. Again when the indi¬
vidual being merges in the Supreme it is called the turyatita. The vegetable kingdom is always in sushupti; the animals have both
swapna and sushupti; the gods (celestials) are always in jagrat; man has all the three states; but the clear-sighted yogi abides only
in turiya, and the highest yogi remains in turyatita alone.
The three states alternate involuntarily for the average man. The last two (turiya and turyatita) are however the results of practice
and form clear aids to liberation. Of the other three states (Jagrat, swapna and sushupti) each one is exclusive of the other two
and limited by the conditions of time and space. They are therefore unreal.
Our very experience of the jagrat and the swapna states proves that the Consciousness as the Self underlies all the five states,
remains perfect all along and witnesses all of them. But with regard to similar consciousness in the deep sleep, every person is
known to say “I was not aware of anything; I slept soundly and happily”. Two facts emerge from the statement (unawareness of
anything and the happiness of sound sleep). Unless these existed and were experienced in sleep they could not find expression
by the same person in the waking state. Inference also leads to the same conclusion. Just as the eye sees the darkness which
remains enveloping all objects, so also the Self sees the darkness of nescience which remained covering the phenomenal world.
This darkness was experienced when it (the Self) emerged in dots of supreme bliss, shone a trice and fleeted away in such fine
subtlety as the rays of the moon which peer through the waving foliage. The experience was however not through any media
(such as the senses of the mind), but bears out the fact that consciousness does exist in deep sleep. The unawareness is owing
to the absence of relative knowledge, and the happiness to the absence of (seething) thoughts.
If the experience of bliss in deep sleep is a fact, how is it that no one among all the human beings recollects it? A diver who has
found the desired thing under water cannot make his discovery known to the expectant persons on the shore until he emerges
from the water. Similarly the sleeper cannot express his experience because he cannot contact the organs of expression until he
is awakened by his vasanas in due course. Therefore it follows that the Self is the light of Sat, Chit, Ananda.
The Self is the basis of all the experiences. It remains as the witness and the support of them all. The Reality is thus different from
the three states, the waking, the dream and the deep sleep.
M.: Whatever state one is in, the perceptions partake of that state. The explanation is that in the waking state (jagrat) the gross
body perceives gross names and forms; in swapna (the dream state) the mental body perceives the mental creations in their
manifold forms and names; in the sushupti (deep dreamless sleep), the identification with the body being lost, there are no percep¬
tions; similarly in the Transcendental state identity with Brahman places the man in harmony with everything, and there is nothing
apart from his Self.
Sankara tradition
Nikhilananda. Mandukya Upanishad
The perceiver in the jagrat and svapna states who always experiences subject-object relationship, finds its absence in susupti.
That the Atman is the witness of the three states is known from the perception of the change of one state into another. The Atman
is the witness not only of the three states but also of their cognizers, viz., Visva, Taijasa and Prajna. In this body and in the Jagrat-
state alone, the three states as well as their cognizers are perceived.
Catuspada and Atman
Sivananda tradition
Krishnananda. Mandukya Upanishad
This Subject, this Atman, whose investigation we are to make now, is regarded as fourfold for the purpose of this analysis, -
so’yamatma chatushpat. ... The four quarters of the Atman described in the Mandukya Upanishad are the four aspects in the study
of the Atman, and not four distinguishable, partitioned quarters of the Atman. These quarters, these four aspects in the study of
the nature of the Atman, which are the main subject of the MandGkya Upanishad, are also a process of self-transcendence.
... we transcend ... the universal physical for the sake of the attainment of the universal psychic or the astral; transcend that also,
later, and then reach the universal causal; and transcend that, too, further, and reach the Universal Spiritual ... So, we have the
physical, the subtle, the causal and the Spiritual. These are the four feet of the Atman, or rather, four aspects of the study of the
nature of the Atman, four stages of self-transcendence described in the Upanishad. These four stages are called jagrat, svapna,
sushupti and turlya, - the waking state, the dreaming state, the sleeping state, and the transcendent spiritual state. There are the
four states of Consciousness, and a study of Consciousness is the same as the study of the Absolute or Brahman, because Brah¬
man is Consciousness. ... So, we have to take, one by one, the stages of waking, dream, sleep and the pure Spirit, or the Abso¬
lute, for the sake of attaining this self-transcendence.
Catuspada and OM
Sankara tradition
Nikhilananda. Mandukya Upanishad
II. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS BY SANKARA
Though the name and the object signified by the name are one and the same, still the explanation 1 has been given (here) by
giving prominence [N’s Note (Nikhilananda’s Note). Prominence—Because Aum is the first word of the first Upanisad. The purport
of the sentence is that Aum is the symbol, the most universal, for all the phenomena of the world. Therefore prominence is given
to Aum.] to the name (Aum). Though in the Upanisadic passage—’Aum, this word, is all this’— explanation has been furnished
by giving prominence to the name (Aum), the same thought is again expounded by giving prominence to the thing signified by the
name. The object is to realise the knowledge of the oneness of the name and the thing signified by it. Otherwise, (the explanation)
that the knowledge of the thing is dependent on the name, might suggest that the oneness of the name and the thing is to be tak¬
en only in a figurative sense. The purpose of the knowledge of the unity (of the name and the thing signified by it) is to simultane¬
ously remove, by a single elfort. (the illusion of) both the name and the thing and establish (the nature of) Brahman which is other
than both. Therefore the Sruti says, The quarters (Padas) are the letters of Aum (Matra) and the letters are the quarters’.
Therefore it says:
All this is verily Brahman. This Atman is Brahman. This Atman has four quarters.
SANKARA’S COMMENTARY
All this is verily Brahman. All that has been said to consist merely of Aum (in the previous text, See OM) is Brahman. That Brah¬
man which has been described [N’s Note. By the Sruti.] (as existing) inferential^ [N’s Note, i.e., we cannot directly perceive its
presence but we can infer it. It is opposed to Aparokshajnana which refers to the knowledge of a thing that is not directly perceived
but about the existence of which one becomes absolutely certain by means of what is known as realization] - is now pointed out,
as being directly known [N’s Note. The word Pratyaksha, nowdays, is applied, especially in the Nyaya Philosophy, to the knowl¬
edge of the objects of sense-perception. But occasionally it is used, in the Upanisad and the Vedantic text, in the sense of Ap-
aroksha], by the passage, This Self is Brahman’. The word this, meaning that which appears divided into four quarters [N’s Note.
Namely, Visva (the waking slate), Taijasa (dream state), Prdjna (Susupti or the state of dreamless sleep) and Turiya which is
same as Brahman or Atman. These four quarters correspond to the three Matras of Aum and the Amatra of Aum. A, U, and M are
the three Matras. The fourth, which is known as Amatra or without a letter, has no corresponding letter or sound. This is silence or
Atman corresponding to Turiya. The idea of sound suggests the idea of soundlessness or silence from which sound may be said
to proceed.], is pointed out as the innermost Self, with a gesture (of hand) [N’s Note. I.e., by placing the hand on the region of the
heart which, in popular belief, is the seal of Atman.] by the passage, This is Atman’. That Atman indicated by Aum, signifying both
the higher and the lower Brahman, has four quarters (Padas) [N’s Note. The four quarters arc imagined in Atman lo faeililale the
understanding of the pupil], not indeed, like the four feet (Padas) of a cow [N’s Note. Because cow has actually four feet which are
unrelated with one another], but like the four quarters (Padas) of a coin known as Karshapana [N’s Note. Karshapana is a coin
made up of four quarters. A quarter-Karshapana is merged in the half-Karshapana; the half is merged in the three-fourth-Karshap-
ana and the three-quarters ultimately is merged in the full Karshapana.]. The knowledge of the fourth (Turiya) is attained by merg¬
ing the (previous) three, such as Visva etc., in it in the order of the previous one in the succeeding one [N’s Note. Visva is merged
in Taijasa, Taijasa in Prajna and finally Prajna is merged in Turiya.] Here the word ‘Pada’ or ‘foot’ is used in the sense of instru¬
ment. The word ‘Pada’ is again used in the sense of an object when the object to be achieved is the fourth (Turiya) [N’s Note. It is
because the ‘fourth’ pada is realized by means of merging the three slates in it, and the attention is here drawn to the fourth pada
which is the object of the enquiry].
See also:
OM
Sanskrit
catuspada -
Diagram: Catuspada, Four States of Consciousness
Cetana
Variant spellings
ceana
chetana
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Cetana — ... consciousness; volition; intelligence (see cit)
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
cetana -
consciousness, understanding, sense, intelligence;
the state of a sentient or conscious being, intelligence
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Cetana: The life principle that animates beings. Cit in its functional state.
Descriptions
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
A car needs energy to make it run; the cosmos, on the other hand, lives on its own. This vitality that keeps both the cosmos and
individuals alive is called cetana. The cosmos being changeful, this cetana has also necessarily to be likewise. Of presumed exis¬
tence, cetana the subtlest of the constituent factors, is known as “soul” in theology.
See: Cit, chaitanya, cetana
See: OM (Pranava) and cetana
Related words
Chaitanya
Cit
Citta
Opposite: Jada
Sanskrit
Cetana — ^cm
cetana -
Chaitanya
Variant spellings
chaitanya
caitanya
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Caitanya — ... consciousness; intelligence; spirit; awareness; Pure Consciousness
1. The fundamental Consciousness which has absolute freedom of knowing (jhana sakti) and doing (kriya sakti). According to
Kashmir Saivism, it is the Absolute Reality, and is essentially, one and nondual, Pure Illumination (Suddha prakasa), self-lumi¬
nous, and self-revealed.
2. Krsna Caitanya (1486-1533) was the name of a Bengali saint who is considered the founder of the Vedanta school called
Acintya Bhedabheda. He is also considered the founder of the Hah Krishna sect of Vaisnavism and responsible for a great revival
of Krsna devotion in the sixteenth century.
3. Stages of consciousness: vyahjanavagraha, arthavagraha, iha, avaya, dharana.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
caitanya -
(fr. ce’tana) consciousness;
intelligence, sensation, soul, spirit;
the Universal Soul or Spirit;
N. of a reformer of the Vaishnava faith (born about 1485 A.D.)
Dictionary - Runes
Caitanya: (Skr.) Consciousness, “superconsciousness”, a quality near the in-it-self aspect of the Absolute Spirit, and hence some¬
times a synonym for it. K.F.L.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Meditations on the self
Chaitanya - Consciousness that is illuminating the conscious mind of an individuated organism and also governing it as its uncon¬
scious self. It has the potential to transform itself into various mental functions, ranging from simple sensation to the highest form
of self-awareness.
Ramakrishna tradition
Vivekananda. Jnana Yoga
Chaitanya - Pure intelligence. Name of a great Hindu sage (born 1485) who is regarded as a Divine Incarnation.
Descriptions
General
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
The technical term used to describe the eternal substance in which all things inhere is Caitanya, which means the changeless
aspect of pure consciousness, the Universal Intelligence or Spirit. It is technically defined as Sat-Cit-Ananda, that is, Being-Con¬
sciousness- Bliss. This does not mean that Being is a Consciousness of Bliss, but that Being is Conscious and Bliss as such. This
represents the perfect condition of the supreme ideal, when Nature rests in Herself, when there is no feeling of a want to be satis¬
fied, when there is no feeling of a need to go forth. It is the transcendental condition of universal potentiality.
Caitanya is, therefore, pure consciousness and can be defined as the boundless plenum in which the universe is born, grows, and
dies; the continuum of experience that pervades, sustains, and vitalizes all existence; the source of all things; the spiritual sub¬
stance of all things; the foundation upon which all things appear; the one and only reality. It is by definition without parts (Niskala),
and, therefore, unproduced, indestructible, and motionless, for all these necessitate the displacement of parts. It must also be
eternal and allpervading, and therefore, with no inside or outside; it is without attributes (Nirguna), and, therefore, beyond time and
space; it is beyond the mind, and, therefore, not a subject of knowledge. It is a principle of pure experience and can be realized
only by the ecstasy of spiritual illumination.
[KasmTr Saivism]
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Integrated Science of the Absolute
Caitanya is a sort of matter and mind, and is an evident reality in common life as when we say an animal has lost its caitanya.
Consciousness has not attained any degree of richness or purity as when we use the expressions cit or samvit which refer to pure
consciousness where duality is further resolved into absolute unity. This concept therefore corresponds to the elan vital of Berg¬
son.
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
Vedantins have a theory of perception which is very different from those of behavioral psychologists, for instance. As the behavior-
ists see it, the object outside is a stimulant causing energy to flow through the senses, in the manner of light falling on the eye or
sound vibrating the eardrum. But to the Vedantin there is only one reality, called akhanda caitanya, unbroken consciousness. The
unbroken consciousness circumlimits itself and says aham, “I am.” This broken fragment thinking of itself as a personal self is said
to have pramatru caitanya, the consciousness of an observer or seer. The object towards which this observer is turned is also a
circumlimitation within the same field of consciousness. The observer and the observed have both become fragments in the to¬
tality of consciousness. These are united by sensory acts such as looking or listening. Whether you are seeking enjoyment in the
field of your own fantasy or with actual objects, it is always nothing more than a play in consciousness.
... In Sanskrit the looking side is called pramata caitanya, and the seeing side is prameya caitanya. The criterion by which you
relate the looking to the seeing is called pramana caitanya. In these three is a common factor, caitanya or consciousness. The
objective and subjective aspects of consciousness taken together with the criterion of consciousness, give you what you think of
as a valid experience.
Ramakrishna tradition
Vivekananda. Jnana Yoga
The Hindu says the karma is jada (non intelligent) and not chaitanya (intelligent), therefore some chaitanya is necessary to bring
this cause to fruition. Is it that chaitanya is necessary to bring the plant to fruition? If I add water and plant the seed, no chaitanya
is necessary. You may say there was some original chaitanya, but the souls themselves were the chaitanya, none else is neces¬
sary.
... If there is a yogi among you, he knows himself as chaitanya, for him the body has vanished. An ordinary man thinks of himself
as a body; the idea of spirit has vanished.
See: Cit, chaitanya, cetana
See also:
Buddhi and purusha
Related words
Abhasa
Cetana
Cit
Citta
Opposite: Jada
Samvit
Sanskrit
Caitanya —
caitanya -
Chakra
Variant spellings
chakra
cakra
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Cakra — ... “wheel or circle”; center; disc; plexus; centers in the body (from the verb root car = “to move”)
1. In the human body, there are seven major energy centers or nerve plexes called cakras. A cakra is a center of energy located
in the subtle body where the channels (nadT) converge, giving the appearance of a lotus. Energy is said to flow in the human body
through three main channels (nadls), namely, sushumna, pingala, and ida. Sushumna is located inside the spinal column while the
pingala and ida start respectively from the right and left nostrils, move up to the crown of the head and course downwards to the
base of the spine. These two nadls intersect with each other and also with the sushumna. These junctions of the nadls are known
as cakras or the fly-wheels which regulate the body mechanism. There are six main cakras located in the sushumna (the subtle
central channel). The cakras are centers of consciousness within the human being which control the functions of all the nerves of
the body. One’s cosmic energy (KundalinT) lies dormant, coiled at the base of the sushumna in the mGladhara cakra. When awak¬
ened, either by yogic practices or by guru’s grace, KundalinT begins to ascend through the sushumna piercing all the cakras until
She enters the sahasrara, the topmost spiritual center.
2. The six main cakras are (1) MGladhara, a four-pelaled lotus located at the base of the spinal column where KundalinT lies coiled
up; (2) Svadhisthana, a six-petaled lotus located at the root of the reproductive organs; (3) ManipGra, a ten-petaled lotus located in
the naval region; (4) Anahata, a twelve-petaled lotus located in the region of the heart; (5) Visuddhi, a sixteen-petaled lotus locat¬
ed at the base of the throat; and (6) Ajna, a two-petaled lotus located between the two eyebrows, a seat of the guru. Other cakras
include sGrya (sun) situated in the region between the navel and the heart; soma (moon) situated in the center of the brain; and
lalata (forehead) situated at the top of the forehead.
3. See chart no. 13.
cakra
location
principle
tanva
sense
animal
Goddess
blja
number of petals
muladhira
bottom of
spine
anna
earth
smell
elephant
dUkini
lam
4
svkdislhUna
generative
organ
prana
water
taste
crocodile
rakinl
vam
6
manipura
navel
man as
fire
sight
ram
lakinl
ram
10
anahata
heart
vijft&na
air
touch
antelope
kakinT
yam
12
visuddhi
throat
ananda
ether
hearing
white elephant
44k ini
ham
16
ajfta
between
eyebrows
cit
mahat
mind
swan
hakini
om
2
sahasrara
crown of
the head
sat
—
—
—
—
—
1000
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
cakra -
the wheel (of a carriage, of the Sun’s chariot;
a potter’s wheel;
a discus or sharp circular missile weapon (esp. that of Vishnu);
an oil-mill;
a circle;
an astronomical circle;
a mystical circle or diagram, Tantr.;
a cycle, cycle of years or of seasons;
a form of military array (in a circle);
circular flight (of a bird);
a particular constellation in the form of a hexagon;
a circle or depression of the body (for mystical or chiromantic purposes ; 6 in number, one above the other, viz. 1. mGladhara, the
parts about the pubis ; 2. svadhisthana, the umbilical region ; 3. manipura, the pit of the stomach or epigastrium ; 4. anahata, the
root of the nose ; 5. vizuddha, the hollow between the frontal sinuses ; 6. ajnakhya, the fontenelle or union of the coronal and sag¬
ittal sutures ; various faculties and divinities are supposed to be present in these hollows);
N. of a metre;
a circle or a similar instrument (used in astron.);
a troop, multitude;
the whole number of;
a troop of soldiers, army, host;
a number of villages, province, district;
range, department;
the wheel of a monarch’s chariot rolling over his dominions, sovereignty, realm;
(pi.) the winding of a river;
a whirlpool;
a crooked or fraudulent device;
N. of a medicinal plant or drug;
N. of a people;
N. of a man;
of a naga;
of a mountain
Wikipedia
Chakra is a concept referring to wheel-like vortices which, according to traditional Indian medicine, are believed to exist in the
surface of the etheric double of man. The Chakras are said to be “force centers” or whorls of energy permeating, from a point on
the physical body, the layers of the subtle bodies in an ever-increasing fan-shaped formation. Rotating vortices of subtle matter,
they are considered the focal points for the reception and transmission of energies. Different systems posit a varying number of
chakras, the most well known system in the West is that of 7 chakras.
It is typical for chakras to be depicted as either flower-like or wheel-like. In the former, a specific number of “petals” are shown
around the perimeter of a circle. In the latter, a certain number of spokes divide the circle into segments that make the chakra re¬
semble a wheel (or “chakra”). Each chakra possesses a specific number of segments or petals.
Texts describing the chakras go back as far as the later Upanishads, for example the Yoga Kundalini Upanishad.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Saundarya lahari
Each chakra ... represents a psychophysical point of equilibrium, attained at various levels of the dynamism between the Self and
the non-Self.
Descriptions
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Chakra, literally, “wheel” or “discus,” is a term used in KUNDALINI yoga to designate energy centers along the spine. These cen¬
ters do not reside in the gross body, at the physical level, but in what is termed the “subtle body.” Though they have a physical
position, they have no definite physical adjuncts or precise nervous system connections as in the case of the Chinese system of
meridians in acupuncture. They are instead believed to be connected to a network of channels in the subtle body called NADIS.
The chakras are usually visualized as being lotus flowers with differing numbers of petals. Each of the chakras is a center of con¬
sciousness of sorts, playing a role in the makeup of the full human being (including his or her transcendent aspect).
There are six basic chakras found in almost every kundalini system with a seventh “highest chakra” that technically is beyond the
chakras, but is often called “chakras” nonetheless. The names of these chakras vary in different systems. The most common sys¬
tem lists the following chakras, moving from the base of the spine to a place above the head: MULADHARA, SVADHISHTHANA,
MANIPURA, ANAHATA, VISHUDDHA, AJNA. In this system the seventh level is usually called SAHASRARA, the transcendent
level, which is not in most systems actually a chakra, but for convenience is sometimes designated as such.
Some accounts include an additional chakra, the LALATA or soma chakra, between ajna and sahasrara. In kundalini yoga one
raises the kundalini, which is seen to be a coiled serpent, through breath control and/or MEDITATIONS so that it pierces in suc¬
cession each of the chakras, giving the adapt control or mastery over them. This movement results in complete personal transfor¬
mation and, ultimately, access to the transcendent state.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Chakra (“wheel”). In Hindu iconography the chakra is the discus-weapon carried by several of the Hindu deities. It is often associ¬
ated with the god Vishnu and is one of the four objects he invariably carries, along with the club (gada), lotus (padma), and conch
shell (shankha). The discus was an actual weapon in the Indian military arsenal, and its sharp edges made it fearsome in close
combat. Vishnu’s discus (named Sudarshana) is even more fearsome in its power. According to tradition it was fashioned by the
divine craftsman, Vishvakarma, from pieces trimmed off of the sun; thus it carries the power of the sun’s blazing energy. The dis¬
cus is also carried by certain powerful forms of the Goddess. In her charter myth, she was formed from the collected radiance of
all the gods and received duplicates of all their weapons.
In the esoteric ritual tradition known as tantra, a chakra is a psychic center in the subtle body. The subtle body is an alternate
physiological system that corresponds to the material body but is believed to reside on a different plane of existence. The subtle
body is visualized as a set of chakras, or psychic centers, that are arranged in a column from the base of the spine to the top of
the head and connected by three vertical channels. Each chakra is pictured as a multipetaled lotus flower. All tantric traditions
speak of six chakras: muladhara, svadhishthana, manipura, anahata, vishuddha, and ajna; some traditions name additional ones.
Each of these chakras has important symbolic associations- with a different human physiological capacity, subtle element (tan-
matra), and with differing seed syllables (bijakshara) formed from the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, together encompassing all
sacred sounds.
Wikipedia
Although there are various different interpretations as to what exactly a chakra is, the following features are common in all sys¬
tems:
They form part of a subtle energy body, along with the energy channels, or nadis, and the subtle winds, or pranas.
They are located along a central nadi, Sushumna, which runs either alongside or inside the spine.
Two other nadis, Ida and Pingala, also run through the chakras, and alongside Sushumna. They occasionally cross Sushumna at
the location of the chakras.
They possess a number of ‘petals’ or ‘spokes’. In some traditions, such as the Tibetan, these spokes branch off into the thousands
of nadis that run throughout the human body.
They are generally associated with a mantra seed-syllable, and often with a variety of colours and deities.
Paramhans Swami Maheshwarananda describes a chakra as:
...[a] powerhouse in the way it generates and stores energy, with the energy from cosmos pulled in more strongly at these points.
The main nadis, Ida, Pingala and Shushumna (sympathetic, parasympathetic, and central nervous system) run along the spinal
column in a curved path and cross one another several times. At the points of intersection they form strong energy centers known
as chakras. In the human body there are three types of energy centers. The lower or animal chakras are located in the region
between the toes and the pelvic region indicating our evolutionary origins in the animal kingdom. The human chakras lie along the
spinal column. Finally, the higher or divine Chakras are found between the top of the spine and the crown of the head.
Anodea Judith (1996: p. 5) provides a modern interpretation of the chakras:
A chakra is believed to be a center of activity that receives, assimilates, and expresses life force energy. The word chakra literally
translates as wheel or disk and refers to a spinning sphere of bioenergetic activity emanating from the major nerve ganglia branch¬
ing forward from the spinal column. Generally, six of these wheels are described, stacked in a column of energy that spans from
the base of the spine to the middle of the forehead, the seventh lying beyond the physical world. It is the six major chakras that
correlate with basic states of consciousness...
... The study of the Chakras is a central part of many esoteric traditions, as well as to many different therapies and disciplines.
In the east, the theory of chakras is a central part of the Hindu and Buddhist tantra, and they play an important role in attaining
deep levels of realisation. Yoga, Pranayama, Acupuncture, shiatsu, tai chi and chi kung focus on balancing the energetic nadis
or meridians that are an integral part of the chakra system. Within the West, subtle energy is explored through practices such as
aromatherapy, mantras, Reiki, hands-on healing, flower essences, radionics, sound therapy, colour/light therapy, and crystal/gem
therapy, to name a few.
Separate chakras
Sahasrara chakra
Wikipedia
Sahasrara (Sanskrit: Sahasrara) Crown Chakra (Top of the head; ‘Soft spot’ of a newborn) .
Sahasrara is either located at the top of the head in the crown area, or a little way above it (see Sahasrara system of minor
chakras below).
Sahasrara is described with 1000 multi-coloured petals which are arranged in 20 layers each of them with 50 petals. The pericarp
is golden, and inside of it is a circular moon region, inside of which is an downward pointing triangle.
Sahasrara chakra symbolizes detachment from illusion; an essential element in obtaining supramental higher consciousness of
the truth that one is all and all is one.
Often referred as thousand-petaled lotus, it is said to be the most subtle chakra in the system, relating to pure consciousness, and
it is from this chakra that all the other chakras emanate. When a yogi is able to raise his or her kundalini, energy of consciousness,
up to this point, the state of Samadhi, or union with God, is experienced.
Meditating on this point is said to bring about the siddhis, or occult powers, of transforming into the divine, and being able to do
whatever one wishes.
Ajna chakra
Wikipedia
Ajna (Sanskrit: 3 imou, Aina, meaning ‘command’) Brow or Third Eye Chakra (pineal gland or third eye).
The Ajna chakra is positioned in the brain, directly behind the eyebrow centre, while its ksehtram or superficial activation site is at
the eyebrow region, in the position of the ‘third eye’.
Ajna is white in colour, with 2 white petals. Inside of the pericarp is the Shakti Hakini, who is moon white, with 6 faces, and 6 arms,
holding a book, a skull, a drum, a rosary, and making the gestures of granting boons and dispelling fears. Above her is a down¬
ward pointing triangle, within which is a moon-white lingum. In some systems the deity Ardhanarishvara a hermaphrodite form
of Shiva-Shakti, symbolising the primordial duality of subject and object, resides within the lingum. Above the triangle is another
smaller triangle, within which is the bija mantra Aum.
The seed syllable is Aum, or “Pranava Om”, the supreme sound.
Ajna has two white petals, said to represent the psychic channels, Ida and Pingala, which meet here with the central Sushumna
nadi (channel) before rising to the crown chakra, Sahasrara. Written upon them in white are the letters ‘Ham’ on the left petal, and
‘ksham’ on the right petal, representing Shiva and Shakti, respectively. These petals also represent the manifest and unmanifest
mind, and are said by some to represent the pineal and pituitary glands.
Ajna translates as ‘command’, and is considered as the eye of intuition. When something is seen in the mind’s eye, or in a dream,
it is being ‘seen’ by Ajna. It is a bridge that links gurus with disciples, allowing mind communication to occur between two people.
The sense organ and action organ associated with Ajna is the mind in both cases.
Hindus believe that spiritual energy from the external environments enter their body through this gateway and hence take utmost
precaution in protecting it with spiritually positive protecting forces. The various religious marks one sees on the foreheads of men
and women belonging to the Hindu faith (like holy ash,namam, vermilion etc.) are thus the blessed spiritual prasadam of their re¬
spective form of the Hindu gods.
Meditation upon Ajna supposedly grants the following siddhis or occult powers; to quickly enter anothers body at will; to become
omniscient; he realizes unity with Brahman; and he has the ability to create, preserve and destroy the 3 worlds.
Vishuddha chakra
Wikipedia
Vishuddha (Sanskrit: Visuddha) Throat Chakra (throat and neck area).
Vishuddha is positioned at the neck region near the spine, with its ksehtram or superficial activation point in the pit of the throat.
This chakra is white with 16 purple or smoke coloured petals, and within the pericarp is a sky-blue downward pointing triangle,
within which is a circular region which is white like the full-moon, representing the element of akasha or ether. This region is rep¬
resented by the deity Ambara, who is white in colour, with four arms, holding a noose and a goad, making the gestures of granting
boons and dispelling fear, and seated upon a white elephant.
The bija mantra (seed sound) is the syllable ham, and is written in white upon the chakra. In the bindu or point above the mantra
resides the deity Sadashiva, who has 5 faces and 10 arms. The right side of his body is a white Shiva, and the left half of the body
is a golden Shakti. He is holding a trident, chisel, sword, vajra, fire, a great snake, a bell, a goad, and a noose, and is making the
gesture of dispelling fear. He is clad in a tiger skin. His Shakti is Shakini, who is shining white, with five faces, three eyes each,
and four armed, with a bow and arrow, noose, and goad, and seated on a red lotus.
Vishuddha chakra is known as the purification centre. Here the nectar amrit that drips down from the Bindu chakra, and is split
into a pure form and a poison. In its more abstract form, it is associated with higher discrimination, and it is associated with cre¬
ativity and self-expression. When Vishuddha is closed, we undergo decay and death. When it is open, negative experience is
transformed into wisdom and learning. The success and failure in one’s life depends upon the state of this chakra (polluted/clean).
Guilty feeling is the most prominent reason for this chakra; to block the Kundalini Energy moving upwards. It is associated with the
element Akasha, or ether, and the sense of hearing, as well as the action of speaking. Meditation upon this chakra is said to bring
about the following siddhis or occult powers; vision of the three periods, past, present and future; freedom for disease and old age;
destruction of dangers; and the ability to move the three worlds.
Anahata chakra
Wikipedia
Anahata (Sanskrit: sptt^cT, Anahata) Heart Chakra (heart area).
The Anahata chakra is positioned in the central channel behind the spine at the heart region, with its kshetram or superficial acti¬
vation site actually in the heart region between the two breasts.
Anahata is represented by a smoke grey lotus flower, with 12 Vermillion petals. Inside of it is a smoke-coloured region that is made
from the intersection of 2 triangles, creating a shaktona. The Shatkona is a symbol used in Hindu yantra that represents the union
of both the male and feminine form. More specifically it is supposed to represent Purusha (the supreme being), and Prakriti (moth¬
er nature, or causal matter). Often this is represented as Shiva - Shakti. The deity of this region is Vayu, who is smoke coloured,
four-armed, holding a kusha and riding upon an antelope, the animal of this chakra.
The seed syllable is the mantra ‘Yam’, dark-grey in colour. Within the bindu or dot above the syllable resides the deity Isha (Lord
in an all pervading form), who is either shining white or blue in colour, with either 1 or 5 faces, 3 eyes on each face, with either 2, 4
or 10 arms, clad in a tiger skin, holding a trident and a drum, or making gestures of granting boons and dispelling fear. His shakti
is Kakini, who is shining yellow or rose in colour. She has a number of variations, having either 1,3 or 6 faces, 2 or 4 arms, and
holding a variety of implements, occasionally a sword, shield, skull and trident. She is seated on a red lotus.
The twelve petals are Vermillion coloured, and upon them are inscribed the syllables kam, kham, gam, gham, ngam, cham, ch-
ham, jam, jham, nyam, tarn and tham in Sanskrit. They match the vrittis of lust, fraud, indecision, repentance, hope, anxiety, long¬
ing, impartiality, arrogance, incompetence, discrimination and defiance.
Anahata is considered the seat of the Jivatman, and Para Shakti. In the Upanishads, this is described as being like a tiny flame
that resided inside the heart. Anahata is so called because it is in this place that sages hear that sound (Anahata - Shabda) which
comes without the striking of any two things together.” [2], It is associated with the element of air, the sense of touch, and with
actions of the hands.
Anahata is associated with the ability to make decisions outside of the realm of karma. In Manipura and below, man is bound by
the laws of karma, and the fate he has in store for him. In Anahata, one is making decisions, ‘following your heart’, based upon
one’s higher self, and not from the unfulfilled emotions and desires of lower nature.
It is also associated with love and compassion, charity to others, and forms of psychic healing.
Meditation on this chakra is said to bring about the following siddhis, or occult powers; he becomes a lord of speech; he is dearer
than the dearest to women; his senses are completely under control; and he can enter at will into another’s body.
Manipura chakra
Wikipedia
Manipura is located at the spine directly behind either the navel or the solar plexus, depending on the system, while its kshetram
or superficial activation point is located directly on the navel (or solar plexus).
Manipura is represented by a downward pointing red triangle, the fire region, within a bright yellow circle, with 10 dark-blue or
black petals, like heavily laden rain clouds. The triangle has a t-shaped swastika on each of it’s sides. The fire region is represent¬
ed by the god Vahni, who is shining red, with 4 arms, holding a rosary and a spear, and making the gestures of granting boons
and dispelling fear. He is seated on a ram, the animal that represents this chakra.
The seed mantra is the syllable ‘Ram’. Within the bindu or dot above this mantra resides the deity Rudra, who is red or white, with
3 eyes, of ancient aspect with a silver beard, and smeared with white ashes. He makes the gestures of granting boons and dis¬
pelling fear. He is either seated upon a tiger skin, or upon a bull. His Shakti is the goddess Lakini. She is black or dark-blue Vermil¬
lion, with 3 faces with 3 eyes each, and four-armed, holding a thunderbolt, the arrow shot from the bow of Kama, fire, and making
the gesture of granting boons and dispelling fear. She is seated upon a red lotus.
The ten petals are dark-blue or black, like heavily laden rainclouds, with the syllables dda, ddha, nna, ta, tha, da, dha, na, pa, and
pha upon them in a dark-blue colour. They correspond to the vrittis of spiritual ignorance, thirst, jealousy, treachery, shame, fear,
disgust, delusion, foolishness and sadness.
Manipura is considered the centre of dynamism, energy, willpower and achievement (Itcha shakti.), which radiates prana through¬
out the entire human body. It is associated with the power of fire, and digestion. It is also associated with the sense of sight, and
the action of movement. Manipura is “the center of etheric-psychic intuition: a vague or non-specific, sensual sense of knowing; a
vague sense of size, shape, and intent of being.” As such, some psychics recommend “listening” to it since it may help in making
better decisions in one’s life on many different levels.
Through meditating on Manipura, one is said to attain the siddhi, or occult power, to create and destroy the world.
Svadhisthana chakra
in spinal cord, the coccyx).
Swadhisthana is positioned at the tailbone, two finger-widths above Muladhara. It has six petals which match the vrittis of affec¬
tion, pitilessness, feeling of all-destructiveness, delusion, disdain and suspicion. Its corresponding point in the front of the body
(i.e. its kshetram) is at the pubic bone.
Swadhisthana is described as a black lotus, with 6 Vermillion coloured petals. Inside of this lotus is a white crescent moon, formed
by two different sized inner circles, one inside of the other. The crescent moon is the water region, whose deity is Varuna, white in
colour, four-armed, holding a noose and seated on a crocodile. The two inner circles also have petals, the larger one has 8 out¬
ward facing petals, and the smaller one has 8 inward facing petals.
The seed mantra, located in the innermost circle, is a moon-white Vam. Within the bindu, or dot, above the mantra is the deity
Vishnu. He is shining dark blue, wearing a yellow dhoti, and holds a conch, a mace, a wheel and a lotus. He wears the shriwatsa
mark, and the koustabha gem, and is seated either on a pink lotus, or on the divine eagle Garuda. His Shakti is the goddess Raki-
ni (or Chakini). She is dark black, dressed in a red or white sari, seated on a red lotus, and she is either one faced and two armed,
holding a sword and a shield, or two faced and 4 armed, holding either a trident, lotus, drum and vajra, or an arrow, skull, drum
and axe.
Wikipedia
Swadhisthana (Sanskrit: ^TT&iRiM, Svadhisthana) called ‘One’s own abode’, Sacral Chakra (last bone
The 6 petals are Vermillion, and have the following syllables written on them in the colour of lightning; bam, bham, mam, yam, ram
and lam. They represent the vritties of affection, pitilessness, feeling of all-destructiveness, delusion, disdain and suspicion.
Swadhisthana is associated with the unconscious, and with emotion. It is closely related to Muladhara in that Swadhisthana is
where the different samskaras (potential karmas), lie dormant, and Muladhara is where these samskaras find expression. It is as¬
sociated with the element of water, the sense of taste, and the action of reproduction.
Swadhisthana contains unconscious desires, especially sexual desire, and it is said that to raise the kundalini shakti (energy of
consciousness) above Swadhisthana is extremely difficult for this reason. Many saints have had to face the sexual temptations
associated with this chakra.
Through meditation on Swadhisthana, the following siddhis or occult powers are said to be obtained. One is freed from all his
enemies, and becomes a lord among yogis. His words flow like nectar in well-reasoned discourse. One gains loss of fear of water,
awareness of astral entities, and the ability to taste anything desired for oneself or others.
Muladhara chakra
Wikipedia
, Muladhara),meaning “root place”, Base or Root Chakra (ovaries/prostate).
Muladhara is said to be located at the base of the spine in the vicinity of the coccygeal plexus beneath the sacrum, while it’s kshet-
ram, or superficial activation point, is located on the perineum.
Muladhara is described as a yellow, square lotus, surrounded by 8 shining spears on the sides and corners, and with 4 red petals.
The deity of this region is Indra, who is yellow in colour, 4-armed, holding a vajra and blue lotus in his hands, and mounted upon
the white elephant Airawata, who has seven trunks, denoting the seven elements vital to physical functioning. Occasionally, in¬
stead of Indra, the deity is Ganesha, with coral orange skin, wearing a lemon yellow dhoti with a green silk scarf draped around his
shoulders. In his 3 of his hands he holds a ladu, a lotus flower, a hatchet, and the fourth is raised in the mudra of dispelling fear.
The seed mantra syllable is ‘Lam’. Within the bindu, or point that forms a part of the letter, just above it, is Brahma, who is deep
red, with 4 faces and 4 arms, and holding a staff, a sacred vase of nectar, a rosary and making the gesture of dispelling fear (alter¬
natively instead of the staff and rosary he is holding a lotus flower and the sacred scriptures). He is seated on a swan. His Shakti
is a goddess called Dakini. She is seated on a red lotus, and is shining red or white, a beautiful face with 3 eyes, with 4 arms,
holding a trident, a skulled staff, a swan, and a drinking vessel (instead of a swan and drinking vessel, she sometimes is holding a
sword and a shield).
In the centre of the square, below the seed syllable, is a deep red inverted triangle. Within this resides/sleeps the kundalini shakti,
the great spiritual potential, waiting to be aroused and brought back up to the source from which it originated, Brahman. She is
represented as a snake wrapped 3 and a half times around a smokey grey lingam.
The 4 petals are red, with the Sanskrit syllables Va, Scha, Sha and Sa written in gold upon them, representing 4 vritties of greatest
joy, natural pleasure, delight in controlling passion, and blissfulness in concentration, or alternatively; dharma (psycho-spiritual
longing), artha (psychic longing), kama (physical longing) and moksha (longing for spiritual liberation).
Muladhara is the base from which the three main psychic channels or nadis emerge: the Ida, Pingala and Sushumna. It is also be¬
lieved that Muladhar is a subtle abode of the Hindu God, Ganapati. And in the highest revered prayer for Ganapati, the Ganapati
Atharvashirsha, it is mentioned that ‘one who worships Lord Ganapati would easily grasp the concept and realize Brahman.
Muladhara is considered the ‘root’ or ‘foundation’ chakra, and is the transcendental basis of physical nature. It is also the seat
of kundalini awakening, which begins its ascent here. Alternatively it is called the seat of the ‘red bindu’, or subtle drop, which is
caused to rise up to the ‘white bindu’ in the head in order to unite the female and masculine energies of Shakti and Shiva.
It is associated with the element of earth, and the sense of smell, and the action of excretion.
Through concentration on muladhara, one is said to attain various siddhis or occult powers; one is said to become a Lord of
Speech and king among men, with the luster of 10 million suns, and adept in all kinds of learning. He is ever free of disease, and
his inmost spirit is full of gladness.
The Minor Chakras
Wikipedia
In addition to the 7 major chakras, there are a number of other chakras which have importance within different systems. For exam¬
ple, Woodroffe describes 7 head chakras (including Ajna and Sahasrara) in his other Indian text sources. Lowest to highest they
are: Talu/Talana/Lalana, Ajna, Manas, Soma, Brahmarandra, Sri (inside Sahasrara), Sahasrara. In addition, the chakra Hrit known
as the wish-fulfilling tree is often included below the heart, which may be the same as a chakra known as Surya located at the
solar plexus. Some models also have a series of 7 lower chakras below muladhara that go down the legs.
Hrit chakra or Surya chakra
This chakra is a minor chakra located just below the heart at the solar plexus, and is known as the wish-fulfilling tree. Here, the
ability to determine your destiny becomes a reality. It is also known as the Surya chakra. It supports the actions of Manipura
chakra by providing it with the element of heat, and is responsible for absorbing energy from the sun.
In Tibetan buddhism, a similar chakra called the Fire Wheel is included in the scheme, but this is located above the heart and be¬
low the throat.
Lalana/Talumula
A chakra known as Lalana is situated in one of two places, either in the roof of the mouth, between Visuddhi and Ajna, or on the
forehead, above Ajna. The Lalana chakra on the roof of the mouth is related to Bindu and Vishuddhi. When the nectar amrit trick¬
les down from Bindu, it is stored in lalana. This nectar can fall down to Manipura and be burned up, causing gradual degeneration,
or through certain practices it can be passed to Visuddhi and purified, becoming a nectar of immortality.
Manas
A chakra known as Manas (mind) is located either between the navel and the heart, close to Surya, or is located above Ajna on
the forehead. The version on the forehead has 6 petals, connected to the 5 sense objects plus the mind. In Tibetan buddhism, the
chakra located on the forehead is called the Wind wheel, and has 6 spokes.
Bindu Visarga/Indu/Chandra
Bindu visarga, is located either at the top back of the head, where some Brahmins leave a tuft of hair growing, or in the middle
forehead. It is symbolised by a crescent moon. This chakra secretes an ambrosial fluid, amrit, and is the seat of the white bindu
(compare with the white bodhicitta drop in the crown chakra in the Vajrayana system).
Brahmarandra/Nirvana
In some systems, Sahasrara is the chakra that is on the crown of the head. However, other systems, such as that expounded by
Shri Aurobindo, state that the real Sahasrara is located some way above the top of the head, and that the crown chakra is in fact
Brahmarandra, a sort of secondary Sahasrara with 100 white petals.
Shri/Guru
This is a minor chakra located slightly above the top of the head. It is an upward facing 12 petalled lotus, and it is associated with
the Guru, that higher force that guides us through our spiritual journey.
Lower Chakras
There are said to be a series of 7 chakras below muladhara going down the leg, corresponding the base animal instincts, and to
the Hindu underworld patala. They are called atala, vitala, sutala, talatala, rasatala, mahatala and patala.
Atala
This chakra is located in the hips, it governs fear and lust.
Vitala
Located in the thighs, it governs anger and resentment.
Sutala
Located in the knees, it governs jealousy.
Talatala
Translated as ‘under the bottom level’, it is located in the calves, and it is a state of prolonged confusion and instinctive wilfulness.
Rasatala
Located in the ankles, it is the centre of selfishness and pure animal nature.
Mahatala
Located in the feet, this is the dark realm ‘without conscience’, and inner blindness.
Patala
Located in the soles of the feet, this is the realm of malice, murder, torture and hatred, and in Hindu mythology it borders on the
realm of Naraka, or Hell.
Others
There are said to be 21 minor chakras which are reflected points of the major chakras. These 21 are further grouped into 10 bilat¬
eral minor chakras that correspond to the foot, hand, knee, elbow, groin, clavicular, navel, shoulder and ear. The spleen may also
be classified as a minor chakra by some authorities despite not having an associated coupled minor chakra.
See also:
in Sadhana: Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
Etymology
General
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
Unlikely though it looks, etymologists have traced the relationship of the word “wheel” to the Greek word “kuklos”, whence comes
“cycle”, and also to the Sanskrit word “chakra”.
Sanskrit
Cakra —
cakra -
Chandogya Upanishad
Title
Chandogya Upanisad —
Chandogya Upanisad - -TlHiiyTlHnEl't
Descriptions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Chandogya Upanisad — ... “Singer of the Saman”
1. This Upanisad belongs to the Chandogya Brahmana of the Sama Veda. Broadly speaking, one can divide the Chandogya Upa¬
nisad into two parts. The first five chapters deal with ritualistic worship (upasana) with an emphasis on meditation. The second five
chapters deal with three fundamental Vedantic doctrines: Tat tvam asi, doctrine of infinity, and doctrine of Atman. Along with the
Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, it is considered one of the oldest of the Upanisads. Some noble personages in this Upanisad include
Satyakama Jabala, Narada, Gautama, Aruni, Sanatkumara, Prajapati, Uddalaka, and Svetaketu.
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Chandogya Upanishad The classical Chandogya Upanishad is part of the Chandogya Brahmana, which is attached to the SAMA
VEDA. It is one of the oldest UPANISHADS. It retains much of the character of the BRAHMANA from which it comes, in that it is
largely devoted to delineating the deeper meaning and significance of the elements of the Vedic sacrifice or YAJNA.
Wikipedia
The Chandogya Upanishad is one of the “primary” (mukhya) Upanishads. Together with the Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana and
the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad it ranks among the oldest Upanishads, dating to the Vedic Brahmana period (probably before mid-
first millennium BCE).
It is associated with the Samaveda. It figures as number 9 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads. It is part of the Chandogya
Brahmana, which has ten chapters. The first two chapters of the Brahmana deal with sacrifices and other forms of worship. The
other eight constitute the Chandogya Upanishad. Though there are more than two hundred Upanishads, ten are principal. These
are called the Dashopanishads and are known for their philosophical depth, having become popular through the commentaries of
Adi Shankara and Madhvacharya. Along with Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, the Chandogyopanishad is an ancient source of princi¬
pal fundamentals of Vedanta philosophy. A number of references made to this Upanishad in Brahma sutras indicate the special
importance of this Upanishad in Vedantic philosophy. Important Upasana’s such as Dahara vidya and Shandilya vidya are its
speciality.
Diagram: Summary of Vedic literature
Synopsis
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Much of the Chandogya Upanishad is devoted to the true meaning of the Udgitha, the loud chant of the Sama Vedic priest at the
sacrificial ritual. The Udgitha is said to be tantamount to OM (Ch. 1.1.1- 10) and is identified with the breath (Ch. 1.2.1-14). The
esoteric meaning of each of the syllables in the word Udgitha is explicated (Ch. 1.3.1-12). The Udgitha is also identified with the
Sun, with space as the ultimate, and with divinities.
The Chandoga Upanishad goes on to coordinate the sounds of the fuller Sama Vedic chant with cosmic and human entities.
Through this process, the elements of the Sama Vedic chant are shown to encompass a wide range of human, worldly, and cos¬
mic entities; it is much more important than a simple musical recitation. Chapter three raises the familiar Upanishadic theme of
the identity of ATMAN (the individual self) and the BRAHMAN (the Ultimate Reality). The fifth chapter gives the famous teaching
of Uddalaka Aruni to his son, Shvetaketu; in defining the Ultimate Reality of the brahman he tells his son, “You are THAT” (TAT
TVAM ASI). This is one of the most well known MAHAVAKYAS or “Great Sayings” quoted in the VEDANTA.
Chapters seven and eight relate the nature of the atman or individual self and show that it resides within the human heart. They
tell the famous tale in which INDRA, king of the gods, at last learns the nature of the brahman/atman identity.
Wikipedia
Organization
The Chandogya Upanishad contains eight chapters, with each chapter divided into subchapters called Khandas.
First Chapter
The first chapter contains thirteen khanda’s.
The first khanda ordains the Upasana of udgitha (or holy syllable OM). The syllable OM is called by the term udgitha since a priest
designated as Udgata starts his singing of Sama’s with OM in Vedic yajnas.
The second khanda ordains that udgitha should be meditated as Vital Life Force or Prana, and tells a story to explain the Holiness
of Prana describing how it remained untouched by evil while all other five senses got tainted by evil.
Third khanda says that udgitha should be meditated as sun god.
Fourth khanda continues telling one more method ( Upasana )for meditating upon OM as the Eternal and Ultimate Refuge ( Amri-
tam, Abhayam) and tells that one who mediatates this way becomes himself an Eternal and Ultimate Refuge.
Fifth khanda tells that one who meditates on the Sun and its rays as separate from each other or Prana and its functions such as
speech etc as separate from each other would beget many children.
One more Upasana of udgitha is told in Sixth khanda for obtaining all round wealth.
Seventh khanda ordains that OM (or udgitha) should be meditated as Purusha (Divine Person) present in the right eye who is
nothing but another manifestation of Sun (Aditya)who in turn another manifestation of OM. Hence describes the equality of OM,
Devine Person present in the Right Eye and Sun.
Another Upasana of udgitha is told in ninth and tenth khanda’s which is said to result in a Superior Divine Essence (Parovareeya
Satva ) in the practitioner. This is told in the form of a story of Three Scholars of Sama.
Tenth and Eleventh khandas describe three parts of Sama called Prastava, udgitha and Pratihaara which are sung by priests in
vedic Rituals and their respective gods through a Story of Priest Ushasti Chakrayana.
Twelfth khanda tells about the Udgitha Sama revealed by gods in the form of Dogs. The result of singing this Sama is availability
of food.
Thirteenth khanda describes the various Upasana’s of Sthobha- Akshara’s.
Second Chapter
There are 24 khanda’s in the second chapter. After having elaborated on different Upasana’s of various organs of Sama, the sec¬
ond chapter elaborates many Upasana’s of full Sama as a whole (that is, combined Sama with all Sama organs or parts). In other
words, it can be said that if first chapter describes the Upasana of different body parts separately, the second chapter describes
the Upasana’s of whole body (Full Sama). Worshipping Full Sama or Whole Sama is described to be yielding good character
(Saadhu Dharma) to worshipper in first khanda.
Second khanda describes Five-Fold Sama or Sama with Five Organs (Pancha Vidha Sama). HIM- Kara, Prastava, udgitha, Prati-
hara and Nidhana are the names of Five organs of Sama.
In second to seventh khanda’s this Five-Fold Sama is ordained to be conceptualized or viewed as different worlds such as earth,
heaven etc in worldview, as wind, lightning etc in view of process of raining, as cloud, rain, ocean etc in water view, as different
seasons like spring etc in seasons view, as sheep etc in animal view and finally as vital airs (Prana).
Each of these conceptualizations or views of FiveFold Sama is a separate Upasana of Fivefold Sama and described to be having
definite fruit or result for the practitioner.
Eighth khanda ordains Seven-Fold Sama. Two more organs Adi and Upadrava are added to Five organs described in second
khanda to make Sama Seven Fold. This Seven Fold Sama is ordained to be seen or viewed in the speech in eighth khanda. Fruit
of this Upasana is worshipper never faces scarcity of food and will have enough food to provide for others.
Next Upasana is to meditate or view sevenfold sama in the movement of sun in the sky. Fruit of this upasana is worshipper attains
Sun’s form ( Aditya Swarupa ). This is the content of ninth khanda.
Tenth khanda ordains Upasana of syllables of seven organs of Seven Fold Sama (Sapta Vidha Sama Namakshara Upasana).
Khanda’s 11-21 describe how some famous Samas or ( Sama Mantras ) to viewed.
Gayatra Sama is ordained to be viewed as Mind, Speech, Eye, etc.
Rathantara Sama is ordained to be viewed as process of generating fire by rubbing two wood pieces.
Vaamya Devya Sama is ordained to be viewed as mating process between male and female human beings.
Brihat Sama is ordained to be viewed as world activity as per of movement of sun across the horizon.
Vairupa Sama is ordained to be viewed as process of raining.
Vairaja Sama is ordained to be viewed as Seasonal Cycle.
Shakvaree Sama is ordained to be viewed as different worlds.
Revati Sama is ordained to be viewed as grazing animals.
Yagnya-Yagneeya Sama is ordained to be viewed as hair, skin, meat, etc.
Rajana Sama is ordained to be viewed as Fire, Wind, Stars, etc.
Finally Complete Sama or Sarva Sama is ordained to be viewed as three veda’s (Trayi Vidya) which are Rigveda, Yajurveda and
Sama veda and whole world.
Each of these Upasana’s are mentioned along with a distinct fruit or result to the worshipper.
Later khandas of this chapter describe various modes of singing Sama, upasana on holy syllable OM, three Savana’s, their re¬
spective gods and Sama’s to them.
Third Chapter
This chapter has 19 khanda’s. First 11 khanda’s deal with Upasana of Sun and this Upasana is known as Madhu Vidya. Khandas
12 and 13 teach Brahman through Gayatri. 14th Khanda elaborates famous meditation Shandilya Vidya, known after its revealer
the seer Shandilya. 15th Khanda describes Kosha Vidya for begetting long life and valour for one’s son. 16th and 17th Khandas
detail Purusha Vidya which results in increased life span of practitioner. It is told that seer Mahidasa Aitareya lived for 116 years
by practicing Purusha Vidya. 18th Khanda ordains that Mind should be meditated as Brahman.
Fourth Chapter
A story of king Janushruti Pautrayana and Self realized seer Raikva is told in this chapter. A meditational practice called Samvar-
ga Vidya is described.
Fifth Chapter
An esoteric knowledge of Five Fires (Panchangi Vidya) is described in this chapter.
Sixth Chapter
This chapter contains the most important message of this Upanishad. It establishes the principle of oneness of Atman with all be¬
ings and non beings. In this chapter, the famous story of Uddalaka and his son Shvetaketu is told and the dialogue between them
establishes the principle of oneness of Atman. The Mahavakya Tat Tvam Asi (“That art Thou”) is found in this chapter.
Seventh Chapter
In this chapter there is a well known dialogue between sage Sanatkumara and Narada establishing that realizing the ultimate prin¬
ciple of universe is only way to ride over sorrows of man.
Eighth Chapter
A meditation technique of concentrating in the cave of heart about Brahman (Dahara Vidya) is told in this chapter
Commentaries
General
Wikipedia
Commentary
Of the available commentaries, the oldest was written by Adi Shankara. Adi Shankara stated that his commentary is a brief book
for those who want a summary of this Upanishad. Ananda Giri mentioned in his commentary that a Dramidacharya wrote an
elaborate and detailed commentary well before Adi Shakara, but little is known about this Dramidacharya and his work is now lost.
Brahmanandi Tankacharya wrote a brief explanation for this upanishad and Dramidacharya wrote an elaborate and detailed com¬
mentary on the work of Brahmanandi Tankacharya. Sri Ramanuja makes many references to these two scholars in his commen¬
taries, Vedanta Sangraha and Sri Bhasya.
Publications
Translations
In: Deussen, P., Bedekar, V. M. & Palsule, G. B. 1997, Sixty Upanishads Of The Veda (2 Vols.), Motilal Banarsidass Publishers
(Pvt. Ltd).
In: Hume, R. E. & Haas, G. C. O. 1995, The thirteen principal Upanishads : translated from the Sanskrit, with an outline of the phi¬
losophy of the Upanishads and an annotated bibliography, Oxford University Press, Delhi; Oxford.
Krishnananda. 1984, The Chhandogya Upanishad, Divine Life Society, Shivanandanagar, Distt. Tehri-Garhwal, U.P., Himalayas,
India.
Prasad, N. 2007, Chandogya Upanfrsad : with the original text in Sanskrit and roman transliteration, D.K. Printworld, New Delhi.
In: Radhakrishnan, S. 1953, The principal Upanishads, Harper, New York.
Sankaracarya & Gambhirananda, S. 2003, Chandogya Upanishad, Advaita Ashrama, Kolkata.
Senapati, Fakir Mohan, 1843-1918. 1916, Chandogya Upanishad, The Utkal Sahitya Press, Cuttack.
Swahananda. 1965, The Chandogya Upanisad; containing the original text with word-by-word meaning, running translation and
copious notes, Sri Ramakrishna Math, Madras.
In: Swami Nikhilananda, The Upanishads: Katha, Isa, Kena, Mundaka, Svetasvatara, Prasha, Mandukya, Aitareya, Brihadaranya-
ka, Taittiriya, and Chhandogya, 4 vols., New York: Harper & Row, 1964
Related words
Mahavakya: Tat- tvam-asi
Sama Veda
Upanishads
Cinta
Variant spellings
cinta
cinta
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Cinta — ... enquiry; thought; discussion
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
cinta -
thought, care, anxiety, anxious thought about;
consideration;
N. of a woman
See: Manana, vicara, cinta
Related words
Manana
Vicara
Sanskrit
Cinta — IVrli
cinta - ^rRyli
Cit
Variant spellings
cit
chit
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Cit — ... spirit; consciousness; the individual self; Reality; Siva.
1. One of the three ultimate realities (tattva- traya) according to Visistadvaita Vedanta.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
cit -
as a noun
‘thinking’;
thought, intellect, spirit, soul;
pure Thought
as a verb
forming a layer or stratum, piled up;
‘knowing’;
‘giving heed to’ or ‘revenging’ [guilt];
to perceive, fix the mind upon, attend to, be attentive, observe, take notice of;
to aim at, intend, design (with dat.);
to be anxious about, care for (acc. or gen.);
to resolve;
to understand, comprehend, know;
to become perceptible, appear, be regarded as, be known;
to cause to attend, make attentive, remind of;
to cause to comprehend, instruct, teach;
to observe, perceive, be intent upon;
to form an idea in the mind, be conscious of, understand, comprehend, think, reflect upon;
to have a right notion of, know;
‘to recover consciousness’, awake;
to remember, have consciousness of (acc.);
to appear, be conspicuous, shine;
to have in view, aim at, be desirous;
to care for, be anxious about;
to treat medically, cure;
to wish to appear;
Dictionary - Runes
Cit: (Skr.) Awareness. Cf. sat-cit-ananda. K.F.L.
Wikipedia
Cit is a Sanskrit word meaning awareness. It is a core principle in all ancient religions originating from the Indian subcontinent. It is
the Sense of all the physical and mental senses. In Upanishads it is referred to as the Drishta or the Seer. The Sense that makes
sense of all other sense experiences.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. Wisdoms frame of reference
Cit: Consciousness. The second attribute of Brahman as in ‘Sat-Cit- Ananda’. That which substantiates truth as well as value-dy¬
namics.
Nitya. Meditations on the self
Chit (cit) - Primordial consciousness in its most pure and unmanifested state.
Descriptions
General
Wikipedia
In Hinduism it is consciousness in satchitananda.
In Sikhism it is that which is to be meditated on in “Chit Aavai Chit Avan”.
In Jainism it is the Supreme Self.
Dasgupta. A history of Indian philosophy
... there is some other principle which enlivens these knowledge-forms, by virtue of which they become conscious. This principle of
consciousness (cit) cannot indeed be separately perceived per se, but the presence of this principle in all our forms of knowledge
is distinctly indicated by inference. This principle of consciousness has no motion, no form, no quality, no impurity. The movement
of the knowledge-stuff takes place in relation to it, so that it is illuminated as consciousness by it, and produces the appearance
of itself as undergoing all changes of knowledge and experiences of pleasure and pain. Each item of knowledge so far as it is an
image or a picture of some sort is but a subtle knowledge-stuff which has been illumined by the principle of consciousness, but so
far as each item of knowledge carries with it the awakening or the enlivening of consciousness, it is the manifestation of the princi¬
ple of consciousness.
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
We have translated the word chit by “mind-stuff’ as affording the nearest point of contact for the natural insertion of mind into
matter or vice-versa. The word chit, as used in Vedanta, specifically refers to that aspect of clear consciousness that is capable of
entering into some bipolar relation with an outside object.
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
I am aware of my existence, of your existence, of the existence of the world. Thus I have an allembracing awareness that includes
everything. What is not in it, I will never know. This awareness, which includes in it good and bad, far and near, one and many,
big and small, irrespective of all variations, is just one knowledge, cit. So we have one all-inclusive existence and one all-inclusive
knowledge.
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
The Reality searched for is cit in essence; the seeking mind is cit in essence; the seeker knowing Reality therefore means, cit
knowing cit. There being no two cit-s, this knowing, in effect, is none other than the knower becoming merged in the known, or the
the knower becoming the known or the other way around. It is simply an intuitive experience of the transparency of mere being¬
ness.
Ramakrishna tradition
Vivekananda. Jnana Yoga
... knowledge, however it manifests itself, either as ignorance or as learning, is but the manifestation of that same Chit, that es¬
sence of knowledge; the difference is only in degree, and not in kind. The difference in knowledge between the lowest worm that
crawls under our feet and the highest genius that the heavens may produce, is only one of degree, and not of kind.
Cit, chaitanya, cetana
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Brhadaranyaka Upanisad
The relation between the Self [atman] and the bodies illuminated by it is said to have three characteristics. When the Self is pure
and unpolluted consciousness it is called clt. When it illuminates this world, the effulgence which is circumlimited by its exposure to
a conditioned ground is called caitanya. When the animation of the Self affects and transforms a body to be a carrier of the dic¬
tates of consciousness, it is called cetana. Thus cetana, cattanya and clt come in an ascending gradation.
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
When the vertical principle of pure consciousness, cit, gives room for horizontality, it is called caitanya, and when it is fully horizon-
talized as an individual being with body consciousness, feeling and sensibilities, it is called cetana.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
chit — from the verb root cit = “to perceive, observe, think, be aware, know”
Related words
Atman
Bhana
Brahman
Buddhi
Chaitanya
Cetana
Cidabhasa
Citta
Opposite: Jada
Saccidananda
Sanskrit
Cit — f%TcJ
cit-^rftt
Citta
Variant spellings
citta
chitta
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Chitta — ... consciousness; mind; thought; apperception
In Kashmir Saivism, the limitation of the Universal Consciousness manifested in the individual mind. It is the mind of the empirical
individual. In Raja Yoga, citta means mind, and in Advaita Vedanta, it refers to the subconscious.
In the Vaibhasika system, it is samskrta-dharmas, born out of the interaction of the senses with their objects.
In the Yogacara system, it is the mano-dharma. It is the primary dharma and essentially the only dharma.
In the Yoga system, the intellect (buddhi), ego (ahankara),and the senses (indriyas) are often called citta.
According to the Sankhya, the mind (citta) has five processes: pramana, viparyaya, vikalpa, nidra, and smrti.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
citta -
‘noticed’;
‘aimed at’;
‘appeared’, visible;
attending, observing;
thinking, reflecting, imagining, thought;
intention, aim, wish;
the heart, mind;
memory;
intelligence, reason;
(in astrol.) the 9th mansion
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
The memorizing and recalling faculty of mind. One of the antahkaranas (see).
Sankara tradition
Sadananda. Vedantasara, tr. Nikhilananda
Chitta: Mind, mindstuff; the inert, substantial basis and store of perception and memory.
Descriptions
General
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Mind (Citta) is divided into three categories in accordance with its respective functions. They are intelligence (buddhi), ego (aham-
kara), and mind (manas). Each has its distinguishing characteristics and individual function; however, they are actually a single
functioning unit, and do not form separate and individual parts.
Hume. The thirteen Upanishads
Chandogya Upanishad, Ch.7, Fifth Khanda.
1. Thought (citta), assuredly, is more than Conception. Verily, when one thinks, then he forms a conception, then he has in Mind,
then he utters Speech, and he utters it in Name. The sacred sayings (mantra) are included in Name, and sacred works in the sa¬
cred sayings.
2. Verily, these things have Thought as their union-point, have Thought as their soul, are established on Thought. Therefore, even
if one who knows much is without Thought, people say of him : “ He is not anybody, whatever he knows! Verily, if he did know, he
would not be so without Thought!” On the other hand, if one who knows little possesses Thought, people are desirous of listening
to him. Truly, indeed, Thought is the union-point, Thought is the soul (atman), Thought is the support of these things. Reverence
Thought.
3. He who reverences Thought as Brahma—he, verily, attains the Thought-worlds; himself being enduring, the enduring worlds;
himself being established, the established worlds; himself being unwavering, the unwavering worlds. As far as Thought goes, so
far he has unlimited freedom, he who reverences Thought as Brahma.’
‘Is there, sir, more than Thought?’
There is, assuredly, more than Thought.’
‘Do you, sir, tell me it.’
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Principles and practice of Patanjali’s Yoga
Citta has a dual function. Sensations from the external world that are carried to the inner organ are registered in the citta in terms
of the information that is sought after by the questioning, doubting, or emotionally activated mind. Then citta preserves the net out¬
come of the encounter between the sensory system and stimulus as data for future reference. As inquiry, judgment, and affectivity
are all mainly based on the registration, retention, and recall of memory, citta is considered to be the main body of consciousness.
Hence yogis mainly concern themselves with the modification of this aspect that mimes the external world in every organism. It is
very similar to a mirror reflecting the image of its surroundings, or the external world being mirrored in each bubble that clusters in
a frothy mass of foam.
Sivananda tradition
Krishnananda. The Study and Practice of Yoga
Citta is not merely the conscious mind or the mentation process, but the stuff of the mind. ... The stuff of the mind is the substance
out of which the entire internal organ is constituted—what we call thinking, feeling, willing, memory or remembrance, etc. Various
functions are there, including even ego.
These functions all put together are the citta, the stuff of the mind. This stuff it is that reveals itself as various functions, though it is
true that the stuff itself cannot be discovered and we can know its nature only from the functions that it performs. ... the energy of
the total system is to be harnessed for the purpose of encountering this total situation that is called the citta.
See: Antahkarana, manas, citta, buddhi, ahankara
Citta and vritti
Ramakrishna tradition
Vivekananda. Raja Yoga
... Dharana, holding the mind to certain points. What is meant by holding the mind to certain points? Forcing the mind to feel cer¬
tain parts of the body to the exclusion of others. For instance, try to feel only the hand, to the exclusion of other parts of the body.
When the Chitta, or mind-stuff, is confined and limited to a certain place, this is called Dharana.
1. Now concentration is explained.
2. Yoga is restraining the mind-stuff (Chitta) from taking various forms (Vrittis).
A good deal of explanation is necessary here. We have to understand what Chitta is, and what are these Vrittis. I have this eye.
Eyes do not see. Take away the brain centre which is in the head, the eyes will still be there, the retinae complete, and also the
picture, and yet the eyes will not see. So the eyes are only a secondary instrument, not the organ of vision. The organ of vision is
in the nerve centre of the brain. The two eyes will not be sufficient alone. Sometimes a man is asleep with his eyes open. The light
is there and the picture is there, but a third thing is necessary; mind must be joined to the organ. The eye is the external instru¬
ment, we need also the brain centre and the agency of the mind. Carriages roll down a street and you do not hear them. Why? Be¬
cause your mind has not attached itself to the organ of hearing. First, there is the instrument, then there is the organ, and third, the
mind attachment to these two. The mind takes the impression farther in, and presents it to the determinative faculty Buddhi which
reacts. Along with this reaction flashes the idea of egoism. Then this mixture of action and reaction is presented to the Purusha,
the real Soul, who perceives an object in this mixture. The organs (Indriyas), together with the mind (Manas), the determinative
faculty (Buddhi), and egoism (Ahamkara), form the group called the Antahkarana (the internal instrument). They are but various
processes in the mind-stuff, called Chitta. The waves of thought in the Chitta are called Vritti (“the whirlpool” is the literal transla¬
tion)... Now we understand what is meant by these Vrittis. The real man is behind the mind, and the mind is the instrument in his
hands, and it is his intelligence that is percolating through it. It is only when you stand behind it that it becomes intelligent. When
man gives it up it falls to pieces, and is nothing. So you understand what is meant by Chitta. It is the mind-stuff, and Vrittis are the
waves and ripples rising in it when external causes impinge on it. These Vrittis are our whole universe.
The bottom of the lake we cannot see, because its surface is covered with ripples. It is only possible when the ripples have sub¬
sided, and the water is calm, for us to catch a glimpse of the bottom. If the water is muddy, the bottom will not be seen; if the water
is agitated all the time, the bottom will not be seen. If the water is clear, and there are no waves, we shall see the bottom. That
bottom of the lake is our own true Self; the lake is the Chitta, and the waves the Vrittis.
... Although this Chitta is in every animal, from the lowest to the highest, it is only in the human form that we find intellect, and until
the mind-stuff can take the form of intellect it is not possible for it to return through all these steps, and liberate the soul. Immediate
salvation is impossible for the cow and the dog, although they have mind, because their Chitta cannot as yet take that form which
we call intellect.
... Each experience that we have comes in the form of a wave in the Chitta, and this subsides and becomes finer and finer, but is
never lost. It remains there in minute form, and if we can bring this wave up again, it becomes memory.
See: Manas, buddhi, chitta
See also:
in Sadhana: Nitya. Principles and practice of Patanjalis Yoga
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
chitta - from the verb root cit = “to perceive, observe, know”
Related words
Ahankara
Antahkarana
Buddhi
Chaitanya
Cetana
Cit
Manas
Samskara
Vrtti
Sanskrit
Citta — f^TcT
citta -
D
Dakshinamurti
Variant spellings
dakshinamurti
Daksinamurti
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Daksinamurti — ... “south-facing form”; the embodiment of wisdom
1. A name for Lord Siva as the silent teacher. He, as the guru of gurus, sat beneath a banyan tree and taught his four disciples
through the elegance of silence.
Wikipedia
Dakshinamurthy or Jnana Dakshinamurti (Daksinamurti) is an aspect of Shiva as a guru (teacher) of all type of knowledge, partic¬
ularly the jnana. This aspect of Shiva is his personification as the supreme or the ultimate awareness, understanding and knowl¬
edge. This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher of yoga, music, and wisdom, and giving exposition on the shastras.
He is worshipped as the god of wisdom, complete and rewarding meditation.
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Dakshina-Murti: Literary “ the deity of the south.” Name applied to a form of Siva in which this god-hero is the Guru to the Vedic
rishis. He is represented as seated on a stone facing the south under a spreading tree with meditative light on his features and
the Jnana- Mudra or wisdom-gesture formed by his right hand. Here in this image, Siva gains ascendancy over Vedic wisdom and
also triumphs in Kailas (the seat of the Vedic gods.) In the context of Guru-wisdom Dakshina-Murti affords the achetype for Guru-
hood; as this same pattern of a wise man seated under a tree runs right through historic tradition in perennial philosophy down to
the most ancient of periods known on the Indian soil.
Ramakrishna tradition
Nirmalananda. The Word That is God
Dakshinamurti: A name for Lord Shiva as the silent teacher. Vedic Religion declares that in every cycle of creation God manifests
as Dakshinamurti and becomes the guru of the first human beings-those who were most spiritually evolved in the previous cre¬
ation-teaching them the path to liberation (moksha).
Descriptions
General
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
In Hindu tradition the Divine Silent Guru is Dakshinamurti, the “Form facing South”, representing Siva as Initiator. One of his hands
is held in the Jnana-mudra, “the posture of Gnosis”, also called Mouna-mudra, “the posture of Silence”, and Chin-mudra, “the
posture of consciousness-enlightenment”. Unlike that of other Hindu Deities, his image always faces South. This Direction is sym¬
bolically associated with Capricorn..., as has been pointed out before in connection with Death. The worshipper, facing the God,
looks in the Direction of the North, spiritually the Direction of the Pole of Manifestation, of Leo. As regards the South, it has been
mentioned that Dakshina, besides “south”, also means “Grace and largess”, and is used for the offering symbolizing renunciation
of the world.
Wikipedia
Meaning
Dakshinamurti literally means ‘one who is facing south (daksina)’ in Sanskrit. South is the direction of Death, hence change. In
every Siva temple the stone image of Dakshinamurthy is installed, facing south, on the southern circumambulatory path around
the sanctum sanctorum. Perhaps, of all Hindu Gods, he is the only one sitting facing south. The great seer Ramana Maharshi, has
interpreted the name as “Dakshina-amurty”, meaning one who is capable but without form.
Depiction
In his aspect as Jnana Dakshinamurti, Shiva is generally shown with four arms. He is depicted seated under a banyan tree, facing
the south. Shiva is seated upon a deer-throne and surrounded by sages who are receiving his instruction. He is shown as seated
with his right foot on mythical apasmara(a demon which, according to Hindu mythology, is the personification of ignorance) and
his left foot lies folded on his lap. Sometimes even the wild animals, are depicted to surround Shiva. In his upper arms, he holds a
snake or rosary or both in one hand and a flame in the other; while in his lower right hand is shown in vyakhyanamudra, his low¬
er left hand holds a bundle of kusha grass or the scriptures. The index finger of His right hand is bent and touching the tip of his
thumb. The other three fingers are stretched apart. This symbolic hand gesture or Mudra is the Gnana Mudra (or Jnana Mudra
or Jana Mudra), a symbol of knowledge and wisdom. Sometimes, this hand is in the Abhaya Mudra, a posture of assurance and
blessing.
Dakshinamurthy is portrayed as being in the yogic state of abstract meditation - and as a powerful form brimming with ever flowing
bliss and supreme joy. Variations of this iconic representation include Veenadhara Dakshinamurthy (holding a Veena), Rishabha-
rooda Dakshinamurthy (mounted on a Rishabha - the bull) etc.
Significance
Indian tradition accords a special reverence to the Guru or the teacher. Dakshinamurthy, in the Saivite system of beliefs is re¬
garded as the ultimate Guru - the embodiment of knowledge and the destroyer of ignorance (as represented by the demon being
crushed under the feet of the deity). The Jnana Mudra is interpreted in this way:- The thumb denotes the God and the index finger
denotes the man. The other three fingers stand for the three congenital impurities of man viz. arrogance, illusion and bad deeds of
the past births. When man detaches himself from these impurities, he reaches God. The Abhaya Mudra, a gesture with the hand
lifted above thigh with palm facing out, fingers pointing, is interpreted as His grace upon His students. The rosary or the snake
signifies Tantric knowledge. The fire represents illumination, removing the darkness of ignorance.
Impact on Indian Life
The fifth day of the week, Thursday is associated with the planet Jupiter and is referred to as Guruvar (or Guruvaaram). Thursdays
are considered auspicious to start any educational endeavours. It is on Thursdays that special worship services are offered to
Dakshinamurthy in many Saivite temples. Some temple traditions hold full moon nights, particularly the night of the Guru Poornima
as the appropriate time for worship services to Dakshinamurthy.
Temples
Even though the idol of Dakshinamurthy is installed in every Shiva temple, there are only a few temples where Dakshinamurthy is
the chief deity. Only one of the twelve Jyotirlingas is Dakshinmurthy, The Mahakaleshwar in Ujjain. Being the only Dakshinmurthy
Jyotirlinga, It holds special importance for Shaivites as a site of learning. Other notable temples are the Vaikom Mahadevar temple
in Kerala, where the deity enshrined in the form of a Shivalingam is considered as Dakshinamurthy, and Alangudi (Kumbakonam)
in Tamil Nadu. In the Sivanandeswarar temple in Thirupanthurai, (Tanjore) Tamil Nadu, He is depicted in the Ardhanari form. In
Thirupulivanam, we can find Dakshinamurthy in the form of Ardhanariswara. This temple is on the Uthiramerur-Kanchipuram road,
5 km from Uthiramerur, near Chennai. In March 2007, a big temple of Lord Dakshinamurty (the first in Maharashtra) was created
in the Shrutisagar Ashram, about 30 km from Pune.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Osborne. The collected works of Ramana Maharshi
According to Hindu legends, Dakshinamurti (which means ‘southward-facing’) is God or Siva manifested as a youth who is the
divine Guru and guides disciples older than himself through silent influence on their Heart. The name is also divided as Dakshi-
na-amurti and taken to mean ‘formless power’.
The Maharshi was Siva manifested, the divine Guru who taught through silence and was therefore identified with Dakshinamurti.
Ramana. The Silent Power
WHEN IN ANCIENT DAYS even Sri Dakshinamurti the Adiguru, guru of all gurus was able to reveal the truth of that one Self only
through silence, the speechless speech, who else can reveal it through speech?
In this connection, Sri Bhagavan once told the following story to Sri Muruganar. When the four aged Sanakadi rishis first saw the
sixteen-year-old Sri Dakshinamurti sitting under the banyan tree, they were at once attracted by him, understanding him to be the
real Sadguru.
They approached him, did three pradakshinas around him, prostrated before him, sat at his feet and began to ask very shrewd
and pertinent questions about the nature of Reality and the means of attaining it. Because of the great compassion and fatherly
love (vatsalya) which he felt for his aged disciples, the young Sri Dakshinamurti was overjoyed to see their earnestness, wisdom
and maturity, and hence he gave apt replies to each of their questions. As he answered each consecutive question, further doubts
rose in their minds and still they asked further questions. Thus they continued to question Sri Dakshinamurti for one whole year,
and he continued to clear their doubts through his compassionate answers.
Finally, however, Sri Dakshinamurti understood that if he gave more answers to their questions more doubts would rise in their
minds and hence there would never be an end to their ignorance (ajnana). Therefore, suppressing even the feeling of compassion
and fatherly love which was welling up within him, he merged himself into the supreme silence. Because of their great maturity
(which had been ripened to perfection through their year-long association with the Sadguru), as soon as Sri Dakshinamurti thus
merged himself, they too were automatically merged within, into silence, the state of Self.
Wonder-struck on hearing Sri Bhagavan narrating the story in this manner, Sri Muruganar remarked that in no book is it mentioned
that Sri Dakshinamurti ever spoke anything. “But this is what actually happened” replied Sri Bhagavan. From the authoritative way
in which Sri Bhagavan thus replied and from the clear and descriptive way in which he had told the story, Sri Muruganar under¬
stood that Sri Bhagavan was none other than Sri Dakshinamurti himself.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Daksinamurti — from daks = “to be able” + murti = “form”.
Sanskrit
Daksinamurti — c*f8i u HMlcl
Daksinamurti -
Dama
Definitions
General
Dasgupta. A history of Indian philosophy
[dama] control over the senses by which these are restrained from everything but that which aids the attainment of right knowl¬
edge.
Dictionary - Grimes
Dama — ... self-control; control of the senses; restraint.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
dama -
house, home (Lat. domus);
‘taming, subduing’;
self-command, self-restraint, self-control;
taming;
punishment, fine;
N. of a brother of Damayanti;
of a Maha-rshi
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Dama : Checking and turning away of the mind from its distractions.
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Dama (self-restraint) is one’s ability to keep one’s mind and sense organs in one’s own control so as to be conducive to the attain¬
ment of the final goal of life.
General
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Dama - self-restraint or control of conduct, restraining the senses from external actions.
Sankara tradition
Sankara. Atmabodha, tr. Nikhilananda
Dama, or self control: restraining the organs of both perception and action from their respective objects, and keeping them under
control. The organs of perception are those of tasting, hearing, smelling, seeing, and touching. The organs of action are those of
speaking, grasping, moving about, procreating, and evacuating. Endowed with this virtue, the aspirant engages only in hearing
about Brahman, reasoning about it, and meditating upon it.
Descriptions
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Bhagavad Gita
dama—... The fulfillment of a pursuit, whether spiritual or mundane, is delayed and obstructed by various distractions coming
from outside as well as from one’s own inner restlessness. There are many evil forces prowling in the unconscious, waiting for an
opportunity to take possession of our mind and senses. If a wakeful and vigilant mind can foresee all such destructive forces and
ward them off from causing obstruction to the harmonious function of mind, this is an act of dama.
Sankara tradition
Sadananda. Vedantasara, tr. Nikhilananda
Dama is the restraining of the external organsl from all objects except that2.
Commentary by Nikhilananda:
1 External organs— These are of two kinds, viz., of action and of knowledge. The five acting organs are those of speaking, grasp¬
ing, going, evacuating and generating. The five perceiving organs are those of heaving, touch, sight, taste and smell. Mind is
called the inner-organ. Here the word Dama implies that particular function of the mind which turns away the external organs from
such objects as are other than hearing etc.
2 That—Hearing etc. Hearing of the scriptures, thinking of their meaning and meditating on it.
See also:
“Shankara. Vivekachudamani, tr. Madhavananda” on page 789
Diagram: Sadhanacatustaya, Four-fold discipline
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
dama — from the verb root dam = “to control”.
Related words
Sama
Samadhana
Broader term: Satsampatti
Sraddha
Titiksa
Uparati
Sanskrit
Duma — cTPT
dama -
Dana
Variant spellings
dana
dana
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Dana — ... “giving”; gift; charity; alms giving; self-sacrifice; donation; generosity
1. One of the ethical limbs (niyama) of Patanjali’s Yoga System.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
dana -
the act of giving;
giving in marriage;
giving up;
communicating, imparting, teaching;
paying back, restoring;
adding, addition;
donation, gift;
oblation;
liberality;
bribery
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Dana: Giving, granting, teaching. A gift offered as a religious rite.
Ramakrishna tradition
Nirmalananda. A Commentary on the Upanishads
Almsgiving (dana) means giving of time and money to the welfare of others. It is also the cultivation of generosity as a trait of mind
and heart. These three are discussed in the Bhagavad Gita, especially in chapter seventeen, as absolute necessities on the spiri¬
tual path, never to be abandoned-not even by the renunciate. For these are not part of worldly life, but essentials of spiritual life.
Descriptions
General
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Dana (“giving”). Charitable giving. This is a common religious practice, for it is believed to be a pious act that generates religious
merit. Dana is especially prevalent at pilgrimage places and other sacred sites (tirthas), since the sacredness of these places is
believed to magnify the consequences of any act, whether good or bad. Dana is one of the traditional paradigms for exchange, the
other being dakshina (preceptor’s fee). The difference between them is that dakshina is a fee for services, whereas dana is given
freely and brings one no tangible benefits. Aside from the intangible religious merit generated by dana, it is also a common way to
get rid of any inauspiciousness or ill fortune, which is transferred to the receiver along with the gift. This assumption makes receiv¬
ing dana karmically risky, whereas there are no such stigmas associated with dakshina. People who live solely by receiving gifts,
such as beggars at pilgrimage sites, are thus in an unenviable position, since they are commonly described as “vessels” (patras)
for the depositing of ill fortune. Yet this transfer of inauspiciousness is a pervasive pattern in regular society, and even within the
family there are means to transfer inauspiciousness through well-established gift-giving patterns, particularly the kanyadan, or gift
of a bride in marriage.
Wikipedia
Gifts in the Hindu Dharmasastras
Hindu law breaks the giving and receiving of gifts down by caste, as it does other activities. Each caste has its own rules and regu¬
lations on the topic of religious gifts. Manu explains that the reason for this is to ensure the protection of all creation, of how things
should be. Brahmins can both receive and give gifts. Ksatriyas are allowed only to give gifts, as are the vaisyas. Manu does not
even speak of the sudras as being related to giving gifts in this part of his text... Brahmins can accept gifts, but only under the right
circumstances and from the right people. If a brahmin has enough to sustain himself and his family, he is then not to ask for gifts.
If, however, he finds himself in a time of trouble and he anticipates struggling for his maintenance, he may seek gifts from the king.
It is the duty of the king to supply proper livelihood for a brahmin in distress. Brahmins would not, however, seek gifts from a king
that was not of the ksatriya lineage, nor from any greedy king, or a king who disobeys the sastras.
Manu makes it clear under his section on Accepting and Giving Gifts that the acceptance of gifts is a special occurrence, and
should not be taken for granted. If a man, a brahmin, becomes accustomed to this, his vedic energy will eventually become extin¬
guished. Kane elucidates this: “though entitled to accept gifts, a bramana should not again and again resort to that method, since
the spiritual power that he acquires by vedic study is lost by accepting gifts.” It is crucially important to know the law on how to ac¬
cept a gift, which is why brahmins are the only ones to be able to do so, since they are learned in the Vedas. It is said that when a
man who is not learned accepts certain gifts, he is then reduced to ashes, like a piece of wood. These certain gifts have the ability
to burn up different parts of the ignorant man’s life, such as his land, his sight, his offspring, and his life-force, to name a few. In
this way, an ignorant man should fear any gift, for it has the ability to make him sink “like a cow in the mud”. In the same way, the
donor must be weary of who really is learned and worthy of accepting his gifts.[8] It is important also that both the giver and the re¬
ceiver share the same respect when giving and obtaining gifts. “When due respect is shown in accepting and in giving a gift, both
the receiver and the giver go to heaven; but when the opposite happens, both go to hell.”
When it comes to the gifts that are being given, each item brings the donor something to his own life. For instance, he who gives
sesame seeds obtains desirable offspring, he who gives food obtains inexhaustible happiness, he who gives an ox obtains boun¬
teous prosperity, he who gives land obtains land, he who gives a bed obtains a wife, and the list goes on. The gift of the Veda,
which only a brahmin would be able to give, far exceeds any other gift, however.
It is important that the giver is truthful about what he has given or how he has made a gift or sacrifice. A sacrifice is lost by telling
a lie about it. In the same way, a man must not flaunt his asceticism, for by doing so this too will be lost. The Naradasmrti also
touches on the topic of gifts in the Dharmasastra, but only briefly. This smrti takes a different approach from Manu to giving and
receiving gifts. It is a more concise advance on the subject. Here we find that there are specifically four kinds of gifts in legal pro¬
cedures: what should and should not be given, along with legitimate and illegitimate gifts.[12] Going further into these stipulations,
it says that there exist “eight kinds of things which should not be given, one kind of thing which may be given, seven kinds of legiti¬
mate gifts, and sixteen kinds of illegitimate gifts.”...
The knowledge of gifts in Hindu Law is important because gifts are used also under the topics of varna, food, sin and penance,
duties of the king, and so on.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
dana (offering gifts) is also of three kinds: The offering of gifts made with the clear understanding that such are to be offered, to a
fit person who does nothing in return, at a fit time at a fit place, is counted as sattvika...
The gift offered expecting some return benefit or motivated by its fruits, and offered with vexation, is considered rajasa...
The gift given to an unworthy person improperly and with disrespect, at a wrong place, at a wrong time, is said to be tamasa...
The Vedic ritual dana (offering free gifts) underscores the idea, “Nothing is mine; everything belongs to God or Brahman”. The
riches that happen to come under one’s control, therefore, are shared with the deserving. Brahma-vadins (exponents of Brahman)
alone offer gifts with the awareness of this principle, and they, as a sign of this awareness, utter the word AUM while offering gifts.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
dana — from the verb root da = “to give”.
Sanskrit
Dana — <TPT
dana - TFT
Darshana
Variant spellings
darshana
darshan
darsana
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Darsana — ... “sight”; vision; to have auspicious sight of; to see a great or holy being, either human or divine; sensation; appre¬
hension; intuition; a philosophical school.
1. Seeing or being in the presence of a revered person, sacred idol, or sacred place. It refers to both “seeing” and “being seen.”
2. According to Jainism, that stage of knowledge where there is an awareness of sensations of sense data. The specific character¬
istics of the objects are not noted however.
3. A standpoint or a system of thought. The various philosophical schools are known as darsanas.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
darsana -
showing;
seeing, looking at;
‘knowing’;
exhibiting, teaching;
seeing, observing, looking, noticing, observation, perception;
ocular perception;
the eye-sight;
inspection, examination;
visiting;
audience, meeting;
experiencing;
foreseeing;
contemplating;
apprehension, judgement;
opinion;
view, doctrine, philosophical system (6 in number, viz. [Purva-] rmmarhsa by Jaim. uttara-mTmarhsa by Badar.; Nyaya by Gotama,
Vaiseshika by Kanada, Sarhkhya by Kap.; Yoga by Pat.);
the eye;
the becoming visible or known, presence;
appearance (before the judge);
the being mentioned (in any authoritative text);
a vision, dream;
appearance, aspect, semblance;
colour;
showing;
a sacrifice;
= dharma
Wikipedia
Darsana (Darshan, Sanskrit: TT3R) is a Sanskrit term meaning “sight” (in the sense of an instance of seeing or beholding;... vision,
apparition, or glimpse. It is most commonly used for “visions of the divine,” e.g., of a god or a very holy person or artifact. One
could “receive darshana” of the deity in the temple, or from a great saintly person, such as a great guru.
In the sense “to see with reverence and devotion,” the term translates to hierophany, and could refer either to a vision of the divine
or to being in the presence of a highly revered person. In this sense it may assume a meaning closer to audience. “By doing dar¬
shan properly a devotee develops affection for God, and God develops affection for that devotee.
Darshan is ultimately difficult to define since it is an event in consciousness - an interaction in presence between devotee and
guru; or between devotee and image or sculpture, which focuses and calls out the consciousness of the devotee. In either event, a
heightening of consciousness or spirituality is the intended effect.
The other common use of the term ‘darshan’ is its application to the six systems of thought, dealt with under ‘Hindu philosophy’.
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Darshana: Vision of certain aspect, especially as seen from the particular point of view of a given system of philosophy. Facets of
truth can be strung together systematically, so as to bring out the particularity of each while revealing the truth of truth underlying
the whole. In Vedanta, darshanas are thus studied in an interrelated fashion, as in the Sarva-Darshana- Sangraha and the Sarva
Darshana Siddhanta Sangraha which method finds its culminating example in modern times in the Darshana Mala (Garland of
Visions) of a hundred verses in ten sections or Darshanas of ten verses each, of the Guru Narayana. The German word Anschau-
ung corresponds to what is meant by Darshana.
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Darsana: Literally, “vision.” The Indian equivalent to “philosophy.” Vision of Reality as seen from the point of view of a given sys¬
tem of philosophy.
Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Uttara Mimamsa are the six such systems of Indian philosophy.
Descriptions
General
Hiriyanna. Outlines of Indian philosophy
Our belief in the reality of diversity as such is the result of perception and is therefore immediate. So nothing but an equally im¬
mediate apprehension of unity can effectively remove it. If variety, in the reality of which we almost instinctively believe, is not to
delude us, we must see the unity underlying it, not merely know it. Seeing is believing. That is why the Upanisads speak of darsa¬
na or ‘spiritual perception’ in respect of the atman or Brahman.
... darsana, which literally means ‘sight,’ ... may be taken to indicate that what the Indians aspired after in philosophy was not a
mediate knowledge of the ultimate truth but a direct vision of it. The word in that case would express what is a distinguishing fea¬
ture of Indian philosophy in general—its insistence that one should not rest content with a mere intellectual conviction but should
aim at transforming such conviction into direct experience.
Muller. The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy
Our idea of a system of philosophy is different from the Indian conception of a Darsana. In its original meaning philosophy, as a
love of wisdom, comes nearest to the Sanskrit Gignissi, a desire to know, if not a desire to be wise. If we take philosophy in the
sense of an examination of our means of knowledge (Epistemology), or with Kant as an inquiry into the limits of human knowl¬
edge, there would be nothing corresponding to it in India. Even the Vedanta, so far as it is based, not on independent reasoning,
but on the authority of the Sruti, would lose with us its claim to the title of philosophy.
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
According to Indian tradition there is only one Ultimate Reality, but there are six fundamental interpretations of that Reality. These
are called the Sad Darsanas or “six insights,” because they give man sight of the sensible verities and enable him to understand in
the light of reason the super-sensible Truth attainable only through the revealed scriptures or through the experience of rsis (sag¬
es). The word darsana comes from the root drs, “to see,” and is the Sanskrit term used for philosophy. The six darsanas constitute
the classic philosophical systems of India. They are Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, and Vedanta. They are not
the creation of any one mind nor the discovery of any single individual. The real founders are unknown, and there is considerable
controversy as to when they were first reduced to writing, but neither of these conditions detracts from the value of their principles.
Together they form a graduated interpretation of the Ultimate Reality, so interrelated that the hypothesis and method of each is
dependent upon the other. In no way are they contradictory or antagonistic to one another, for they all lead to the same practical
end, knowledge of the Absolute and Liberation of the Soul.
They have many characteristics in common. They all grew out of the Upanisads, the philosophical portion of the Veda which is
accepted as the supreme authority; they are delivered in the Sutra style, that is as aphorisms; as such, they are extremely con¬
cise, avoiding all unnecessary repetition and employing a rigid economy of words, making it difficult to understand them correctly
in their original form without the use of commentaries, for they use many of the same terms, but each system gives its own mean¬
ing to the use of the term. They rest their conclusions on several common concepts: all accept the eternal cycle of Nature which
is without beginning and end, and which consists of vast periods of creation, maintenance, and dissolution; all accept the principle
of regeneration of the soul that maintains that life and death are but two phases of a single cycle to which the soul is bound and to
which it clings because of ignorance of the true nature of things; all accept Dharma as the moral law of the universe that accounts
for these eternal cycles of Nature, as well as the destiny of the human soul; all agree that knowledge is the path to freedom and
that Yoga is the method to attain final liberation.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Each schol of thought is called a darsana.and aiming at the happiness of everyone is common among all of them. In other words,
how can happiness in life be ensured by knowing the Reality that appears as life, is the central theme of all Indian schools of
thought.
Nitya. Narayana Guru
Two Sanskrit terms which come closest in meaning to ‘philosophy’ are darshana and tattvajnana. Darshana means the envision¬
ing of truth. Tattvajnana means knowledge of the fundamentals. Narayana Guru looked upon knowledge as both conditional and
unconditional. In the Indian context, the epistemological inquiry into truth is identical with the search for liberation from all kinds of
genetic or psychosomatic conditionings and socio-cultural colorations to which an individual is exposed in the course of his or her
life. In the Western world, philosophical pursuits are mainly generated by one’s curiosity to know Truth, whereas in India, philo¬
sophical pursuits also imply the disciplining of one’s life in the light of one’s best knowledge.
Etymology
General
Wikipedia
Darsana ... from the root drs “to see”.
Related words
Hindu philosophy
Sutra
Sanskrit
Darsana —
darsana - TT3R
Deha
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Deha — ... the physical body; form; shape; person.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
deha -
(from root ‘dih’, to plaster, mould, fashion) the body;
form, shape, mass, bulk (as of a cloud);
person, individual;
appearance, manifestation ifc. having the appearance of;
N. of a country
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Deha: Physical body. Literally, “that which grows.”
Descriptions
Deha and sarira
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Root-wise, the word deha means “that which grows”; and Sarira, “that which perishes,” both signifying the same.
Sivananda tradition
Dayananda. Talks on Vivekachudamani
The body is called sarira because it is subject to disintegration, siryamana-svabhavatvat sariram. The body is also called deha as
it is subject to cremation, dahana-yogya.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
deha — from the verb root dih = “to smear, annoint, mould, shape”.
Muller. The Upanishads, Part 2
The body is meant, and is called deha from the root dih, to knead together.
Related words
Sarira
Sanskrit
Deha — ^
deha - ^
Deva
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Deva — ... “shining”...; one who shines; god(s); celestial being; light giver; abode; sphere.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
deva -
heavenly, divine (also said of terrestrial things of high excellence);
a deity, god;
(rarely applied to) evil demons;
(pi.) the gods as the heavenly or shining ones; vi’sve deva’s, all the gods RV. ii, 3, 4 &c., or a partic. class of deities [see under
vi’sva], often reckoned as 33, either 11 for each of the 3 worlds RV. i, 139, 11 &c. [cf. tri-dasa], or 8 Vasus, 11 Rudras, and 12 Adi-
tyas [to which the 2 Asvins must be added] Br. ; ... ; deva’nam pa’tnyas, the wives of the gods RV. VS. Br.
N. of the number 33 (see above);
N. of Indra as the god of the sky and giver of rain;
a cloud;
the image of a god, an idol Vishn.;
a god on earth or among men, either Brahman, priest RV. AV., or king, prince (as a title of honour, esp. in the voc. ‘your majesty’
or ‘your honour’); ... and in names as purusottama-d... [lit. having Vishnu as one’s deity... ; rarely preceding the name e.g. de-
va-candamahasena;
a husband’s brother;
a fool, dolt;
a child;
a man following any partic. line or business;
a spearman, lancer;
emulation, wish to excel or overcome;
sport, play;
a sword;
N. of men;
of a disciple of Nagarjuna;
dimin. for devadatta;
an organ of sense
Wikipedia
Deva ... is the Sanskrit word for god or deity. In modern Hinduism, it can be loosely interpreted as angel, or any benevolent super¬
natural beings. The devas in Hinduism are often juxtaposed to the Asuras, their half brothers. Devas are also the maintainers of
the realms as ordained by the Trimurti.
Descriptions
General
Encyclopedia of philosophy
Whether Indian philosophy overlaps religion or not is a matter of how one thinks of “religion.” The majority of the early Indian phil¬
osophical systems (darsana) do not acknowledge, and in some cases explicitly deny, the existence of a supreme being or lord (is-
vara). All classical Indian thinking accepts gods (deva). They are viewed as unliberated, like humans; they are beings who inhabit
other realms and occasionally visit ours. They eventually live out their lengthy period as gods and are reborn into lower realms as
humans or even animals. This process is part of the Indian theory of karma—accepted until modern times—according to which
selves are beginningless and are caused by their past actions to inhabit a series of bodies ranging from insects (or even plants) up
to gods, depending on the particular portion of the stored-up results of past actions (karman) that becomes activated (prarabdha)
as one enters the next birth.
Hiriyanna. Outlines of Indian philosophy
Here [Brhadaranyaka Upanisad]. the inmates of the world are classified as gods (deva), men (manusya) and demons (asura), and
are all described as the children of Prajapati. They approach their father seeking instruction from him as to how they should con¬
duct themselves. The answer is brief, but it clearly indicates the necessity for grades in moral discipline according to the capacity
and temperament of the persons in question. To the asuras, the commandment given is ‘Have compassion on man’ (dayadhvam);
to the manusyas, ‘Be generous’ (datta); and to the devas, ‘Learn self-control’ (damyata). The first two of these prescribe regard for
others as the chief principle of action. The third is unlike them and may appear-to be purely individualistic; but, being addressed to
the best, it should be taken to presuppose the training of the other two stages. The same Upanisad in another of its sections rep¬
resents the gods as unwilling to allow man to withdraw from the sphere of social or relative morality, which is merely a rhetorical
way of expressing that man ought not to break away from society until he has discharged his duty towards it and gained its good¬
will, so to speak.
... the old Vedic view of deva—a luminous something presented as external to us.
Hume. The thirteen Upanishads
The gods (deva) and the devils (asura) were the twofold offspring of Prajapati. Of these the gods were the younger, the devils the
older. They were struggling with each other for these worlds.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
The word deva literally means “shining one,” although the most common (and often most appropriate) translation is “god.” This
word is an epithet for any superhuman being, although it can also be used figuratively for any person of high status, such as a king
or a brahmin (priest). The notion of “gods” in Hinduism must be understood in light of the generally assumed context of reincarna¬
tion (samsara), which assumes that a person can be reborn in many different realms of reality. Some of these are realms of pun¬
ishment where people atone for the effects of their bad karma, while others are realms of pleasure (the heavens) where people
enjoy the results of their good karma. The devas are the inhabitants of these heavens, and are thus “gods,” since gods, by defini¬
tion, live in heaven.
Yet all these gods are still subject to the vicissitudes of reincarnation—even Indra, the ruler of heaven. Birth in heaven is based on
one’s good karma, which is inevitably diminished by enjoying the rewards of life in heaven, just as a savings account is depleted
by continuing withdrawals. When their good karma has been exhausted, even the gods are subject to rebirth in other realms. So
even though these gods are superhuman, they are still subject to the law of reincarnation. There is thus a qualitative difference
between these gods (the devas) and the so-called Great gods, such as Vishnu, Shiva, and the Goddess. These latter deities are
seen by their devotees (bhakta) as totally outside the realm of space, time, and the causes and effects of karma, and thus corre¬
spond more directly to the Judeo- Christian notion of “God,” as the ultimate power in the universe.
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
The Five Kins. The most important teachings are based on the symbolism of the Five Elements. ... The Panchajana or “Five Kins”
of Hindu tradition represent the various aspects of human life in the Five Elements, from Earth to Heaven. Their names are men¬
tioned in the Aitareya Brahmana, the Brihad Devata and other scriptures.
The first kin is called either Sarpa, “Serpents”, or Uraga-Rakshasa, or Yaksha-Rakshasa. Uragas are Serpent beings, Yakshas
are Gnomes. Rakshas, from which the word Rakshasas has been derived, is the Spirit of Illusion, generally taking the form of a
monstrous serpent. This first Kin belongs to Earth. ... The word Rakshasas is generally rendered by “demons”; but in the myths
fierce and terrible looking Rikshasas were sometimes pious in nature. ...
The second Kin is called Pitara, meaning “Fathers” or “Ancestors”. The link with the members of the family, alive and dead, is
predominantly an emotional one. The Pitaras belong to the Element Water. It has been mentioned before that the “dream-state” of
consciousness is connected with the Element Water. ...
The third Kin is called Manushya, “Men”, and occasionally Asura, “Not-Angels”. (The word Asura has also other etymological an¬
tecedents). These terms, belonging to a Vedic tradition, developed a different meaning in subsequent Hindu tradition. A Manushy-
an was originally a mental being, a thinker, a denizen of the Element Fire. Now it means a man, a human being. In the East as
well as in the West, “man” derived his name from the “mind”.
The fourth Kin is called Deva, Gods, “heavenly beings”, Angels. They belong to the Element Air or Spirit. They are sensed by the
Buddhi: the faculty of spiritual discrimination.
The fifth Kin is called Gandharva. To a modern Hindu it may seem strange that Gandharvas rank higher than Devas: for now
Gandharvas are taken to be no more than heavenly singers and musicians in Indra’s heaven. Yet even in this conception some-
thing of the original meaning hss been preserved, for Indra’s heaven is the Ether. He is Lord of the Akasha. The original meaning
of Gandharva is a most exalted one. In the Vedas the Gandharva was a glorious being, a “measurer of space”. He is the Higher
Self, the Son of God, the Lord of Ether, the Quintessence, the Lord of Light.
Wikipedia
Vedas
The Vedas, the earliest comprehensive literature, contain mantras for pleasing the Devas to obtain blessings. The Rig Veda, the
earliest of the four, enumerates 33 Devas.
Some Devas represent the forces of nature and some represent moral values. The main Devas addressed in the Rig Veda are
Varuna, Mitra and Indra. Agni (fire) and Soma represent modes of fire-sacrifice, called yagna, but personified are also seen as
Devas. Aitareya Brahmana in its opening stanza suggests a hierarchy among Devas. All Gods taken together are worshiped as
the Vishvedevas. Varuna has the dual title of Deva and Asura. There are also other Devas like Savitr, Vishnu, Rudra (later giv¬
en the exclusive epithet of Shiva, “auspicious one”), Prajapati (later identified with Brahma), and devis (Goddesses) like Ushas
(dawn), Prithvi (earth) and Sarasvati (Knowledge).
Upanishads
The Upanishads distinguish between the celestial gods from the Divine forms of God. The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad says there
are 33 devas in the celestial world, in terms of performance of yajnas. They are eight Vasus, eleven Rudras, twelve Adityas, Indra,
and Prajapati.
Purana
Purana describes genealogy and histories as remembered by the teller. As per Purana, Brahamadeva had seven assumed sons
(manasputra) called saptarishi. They were Marichi, Atri, Angira, Pulastya (Kulastya), Pulaha, Kratu and Wasishtha. Marichi had
a son called Kashyapa. Kashyapa had thirteen wives: Aditi, Diti, Danu, Duhita, Kadru etc. The sons of Aditi are called Aditya, the
sons of Diti are called Daitya, the sons of Danu are called Danava and the sons of Duhita are called Duhev or Deva. Duhita’s sons
Deva were: Vishnu, Yama (Dharma) and Indra.
Nature and Hinduism
According to Vedas, the 33 devas are reflection of Nature. It means worship of devas is actually worship of nature. Primary Devas
like Indra, Varuna (water), Agni (fire), Soma, Vayu (air), Sun, Earth, Hill, Van (forest) are actually symbols of Nature.
Classical Hinduism
Nature Devas are responsible for elements or objects such as fire, air, rain and trees - most of them assumed a minor role in the
later religion. Certain other deities rose into prominence. These higher Devas control much more intricate tasks governing the
functioning of the cosmos and the evolution of creation. Mahadevas, such as Lord Ganesha, have such tremendous tasks under
their diligence that they are sometimes called themselves Gods under the Supreme One God. The Trimurti is composed of Brah¬
ma, Visnu and Siva. (Note: Mahadeva generally refers to Siva)
There are also many other lesser celestial beings in Hinduism such as the Gandharvas (celestial musicians), or their wives, the
Apsaras (celestial dancers).
Vayu, the Lord of the wind, is an example of an important Deva. Also, Death is personified as the Deva Yama.
Devas, in Hinduism, are celestial beings that control forces of nature such as fire, air, wind, etc. They are not to be confused with
the One and the Supreme God or His personal form, Saguna Brahman which can be visualized as Visnu or Siva. God (see Ish-
vara) or Brahman (the Supreme Spirit) is the ultimate controller. A famous verse from the Katha Upanishad states: “From fear
(here, power) of Him the wind blows; from fear of Him the sun rises; from fear of Him Agni and Indra and Death, the fifth, run.” In
actuality, Brahman is the only Ultimate Reality, and all Devas are simply mundane manifestations of Him.
Ramakrishna tradition
Vivekananda. The science and philosophy of religion
The word Deva (god) means bright or shining one, and corresponds to what the Christians and Mahommedans call ‘angels.’
... The gods, the Devas, are not eternal, they have to die. In heaven they will all die. The only deathless place is Brahmaloka.,
where alone there is no birth and death. In our mythology it is said—there are also the demons, who sometimes give the ‘gods
chase.’ In all mythologies you read of these fights between the demons or wicked angels, and the gods, and sometimes the de¬
mons conquer the gods. In all mythologies also, you find that the Devas were fond of the beautiful daughters of men. As a Deva,
the Jiva only reaps results of past actions but makes no new Karma. Karma means actions that will produce effects, also those
effects or results of actions. When a man dies and becomes a Deva, he has a period of pleasure, and during that time makes no
fresh Karma ; he simply enjoys the reward of his past good works. But when the good Karma is worked out then the other Karma
begins to take effect.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
deva — from the verb root div = “to shine”.
Wikipedia
The Sanskrit deva- derives from Indo-lranian *deva- which in turn descends from the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) word, *deiwos,
originally an adjective meaning “celestial” or “shining”, which is a PIE (not synchronic Sanskrit) vrddhi derivative from the root *diw
meaning “to shine”, especially as the day-lit sky.
Sanskrit
Deva — ^cT
deva - %=r
Devayana
Variant spellings
devayana
devayana
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Devayana — ... the “way or path of the gods”
1. It is also called the Northern Path (uttarayana), characterized by various luminous stages such as flame, day, the bright fort¬
night of the moon, the bright half of the year when the sun travels northward, the sun, and lightning. Those who follow this path
and reach Brahmaloka generally do not return to the earth. It is meant for those who cultivate faith and asceticism. At death, those
individuals who attain liberation (moksa) by the devayana, never return to the cycle of birth and death.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
devayana-
leading to the gods, serving them as a way;
way leading to the gods;
the vehicle of a god
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Commentary by Prasad:
Devayana: The path of the gods. One of the two paths through which the departed souls supposedly go to the other world, from
where tney will not return. Literally, “the bright path.” Also called sukla-gati, the white path. Another name for arcir-marga.
Descriptions
General
Dasgupta. A history of Indian philosophy
The second story of Shvetaketu and Pravahana Jaibali seems to be fairly conclusive with regard to the fact that the transmigration
doctrines, the way of the gods (devayana) and the way of the fathers (pitryana) had originated among the Ksattriyas.
... the way of gods (devayana), meant for those who cultivate faith and asceticism (tapas). These souls at death enter successively
into flame, day, bright half of the month, bright half of the year, sun, moon, lightning, and then finally into Brahman never to return.
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
Ganapati and Janus, the two-headed God, supervise the Two Paths and the choice to tread them. These are called by various
names. The Downward Path, that of the Fall, is called Pitri-Yana, “the Path of the Ancestors”, or Bhokti-Marga, “the Path of Plea¬
sure (literally ‘eating’)”, or the Path of the Moon, or the Path of Death. The Return Path to God has been called the Deva-Yana,
“the Path of the Gods”, or Mukti-Marga, “the Path of Liberation”, or the Path of the Sun, or the Path of Life. At every moment anew
— for every moment is a new beginning — the choice of Path must be made — till the Goal is reached. In crude words, the choice
must be made between materialism, selfishness and sin on the one hand, and spirituality, unselfishness and virtue (meaning true
manhood) on the other.
In connection with the apparent movement of the sun the Two Paths have been called the Northward and the Southward Paths.
The Spiritual Path then starts with the commencement of winter, when the sun begins to move Northwards. It is the Birth of Christ,
Mitra, the Son of Man, in Capricorn. Capricorn is the House of Yama, the God of Death, who is also Lord of Life. It is in this sense
that tradition teaches the spiritual striver “to go North”. Just as the South may have a meaning varying with the meaning of “dying”
in the context in which it occurs, the North also may imply different and opposite things.
Sivananda tradition
Krishnananda. Chhandogya Upanishad
The archiradi-marga, or the devayana, the Northern Path of the gods, of the celestials, the path of the liberation of the spirit from
the bondage of samsara, is being described. Those who meditate like this, those who live the spiritual life of knowledge, those who
have an insight into the secret mentioned here in this Upanishad, those who practise austerity (tapas), endowed with the great
faith (shraddha) in the efficacy of this knowledge, they rise to the realm of the divine Agni, or the deity of fire, on departing from
this world. They are carried to a higher realm by the deity of the flame, or fire, and from there they are taken up to the still higher
realm of the deity of the day. There, again, the matter does not end; they go higher up to the realm of the deity which superintends
over the bright half of the lunar month. From there, again, they go higher up into the realm of the deity of the six months during
which the sun moves to the north. Then they go higher up to the deity which superintends over the entire year. Then, further, they
go to the sun, which is a very important halting place, as it is said, in the passage of the soul to liberation. Then the soul goes
higher up into the more subtle regions of experience and enjoyment of a divine a nature, comparable to cool lunar radiance. Then
comes the realm which the Upanishad calls the flash of lightning represented by its deity. This is not the lightning that we see in
the sky, but the flash of the lightning of the knowledge of Reality. We are on the borderland of the Creator, as it were. There the
light flashes and then the individuality is about to drop. Effort ceases there and some other law begins to take the soul by hand. A
superhuman force begins to work there, an amanava-purusha, a superhuman being comes there. Someone comes and recognis¬
es you, “Lo, the exiled has come, the prodigal son has returned.” Such is the joy of the gods when this exiled being returns after
years and years of suffering. The superhuman being catches hold of you by the hand and leads you along the path of light, higher
and higher, until you are taken to the realm of the Creator Himself, the Brahma-loka. This is the path of light; this is the path of
freedom; this is the path of liberation.
Devayana and pitriyana
General
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
Ganapati is worshipped at the beginning of every religious rite, and at the beginning of every important enterprise, by the devout
Hindu. For he watches over the beginning of the Path. The belief is, that no obstacles can be overcome, and no progress made,
on the Spiritual Path, without the guidance, help and blessings of this God, who stands ever at the cross-roads of human choice.
He is the Lord of Karmic causes-and-effects, hence he is the “Bringer and Remover of Obstacles”. Capricorn, the stage he rep¬
resents, is the “crucial” stage on the Path. ... That choice lies before one and all. The opportunity traditionally suited for it comes
in the time when the Cycles meet, marked by the winter solstice. Ganapati is called “the Lord of the Two Paths” which are the
Pitri-yana or “Path of the Ancestors”, and the Deva-yana or “Path of the Gods”. The “Ancestors” are the symbols of the forces of
Karma... The Two Paths begin from the winter solstice, leading in opposite directions. In some contexts they are associated with
both the winter and the summer solstices. When we compare the situations in the heavens of the first points of Capricorn and
Cancer, with which the two solstices are connected, the one, the Path of Heaven, is high above, from the point of view of a be¬
holder on earth, while the other, the Path of Hell, is deep underneath, in the opposite direction.
Devayana, pitriyana and the third path
General
Deussen. Outlines of Indian Philosophy
And now a few words about this way out of the Samsara, and first about the exoteric theory of it. In the ancient time of the hymns
there was no idea of Samsara but only rewards in heaven and (somewhat later) punishments in a dark region (padam gabhiram),
the precursor of the later hells. Then the deep theory of Samsara came up, teaching rewards and punishment in the form of a new
birth on earth. The Vedanta combines both theories, and so it has a double expiation, first in heaven and hell, and then again in a
new existence on the earth. This double expiation is different (1) for performers of good works, going the pitriyana, (2) for worship¬
pers of the sagunam brahma, going the devayana, (3) for wicked deeds, leading to what is obscurely hinted at in the Upanishads
as the tritiyam sthanam, the third place, (I) The pitriyana leads through a succession of dark spheres to the moon, there to enjoy
the fruit of the good works and, after their consumption, back to an earthly existence. (2) The devayana leads through a set of
brighter spheres to Brahman, without returning to the earth. But this Brahman is only sagunam brahma, the object of worshipping,
and its true worshippers, though entering into this sagunam brahma without returning, have to wait in it until they get moksha by
obtaining samyagdarcanam, the full knowledge of the nirgunam brahma. (3) The tritiyam sthanam, including the later theories of
hells, teaches punishment in them, and again punishment by returning to earth in the form of lower castes, animals, and plants. All
these various and fantastical ways of Samsara are considered as true, quite as true as this world is, but not more. For the whole
world and the whole way of Samsara is valid and true for those only who are in the avidya, not for those who have overcome it, as
we have to show now.
Muller. The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy
We are told there that, in the case of persons who have fulfilled their religious or sacrificial duties and have lived a good life, but
have not yet reached the highest knowledge, the subtle body in which the Atman is clothed migrates, carried along by the Udana
through the Murdhanya Nadi, the capital vein, following either the path of the fathers (Pitriyana) or the path of the gods (Devaya¬
na). The former is meant for good people, the latter for those who are good and have already reached the lower, if not the highest
knowledge. The former leads on to smoke, night, the waning moon, the waning year, the world of the fathers, the ether, and lastly
the moon. In the moon the departed souls remain for a time enjoying the rewards of their good deeds, in company with the Pitris,
and then descend again, supported by the remnant of unrewarded merit due to their good works, to the ether, wind, smoke, cloud,
rain, and plants. From the plants springs seed which, when matured in the womb, begins a new life on earth in such a station as
the rest of his former deeds (Anusaya), Anlage, may warrant.
Little is said in the Upanishads of those who, owing to their evil deeds, do not even rise to the moon and descend again. But
Badarayana tries to make it clear that the Upanishads know of a third class of beings (III, i, 12) who reap the fruits of their evil ac¬
tions in Samyamana (abode of Yama) and then ascend to earth again. Theirs is the third place alluded to in the Khand. Upanishad
V, 10, 8.
But while evil doers are thus punished in different hells, as mentioned in the Puranas, and while pious people are fully rewarded in
the moon and then return again to the earth, those who have been pious and have also reached at least the lower knowledge of
Brahman follow a different road. After leaving the body, they enter the flame, the day, the waxing moon, the waxing year (northern
precession), the year, the world of the Devas, the world of Vayu, air, the sun, the moon, and then lightning ; but all these, we are
told, are not abodes for the soul, but guides only who, when the departed has reached the lightning, hand him over to a person
who is said to be not-a-man. This person conducts him to the world of Varuna, then to that of Indra, and lastly to that of Prajapa-
ti or the qualified Brahma. Here the souls are supposed to remain till they realise true knowledge or the Samyagdarsana, which
does not mean universal, but thorough and complete knowledge, that knowledge which, if obtained on earth, at once frees a man
from all illusion. Finally the souls, when fully released, share in all the powers of Brahman except those of creating and ruling the
universe. They are not supposed ever to retura to the world of Samsara (IV, 4, 17).
All this is hardly to be called philosophy, neither do the different descriptions of the road on which the souls of the pious are sup¬
posed to wander towards Brahma, and which naturally vary according to different schools, help us much towards a real insight into
the Vedanta. But it would have been unfair to leave out what, though childish, is a characteristic feature of the Vedanta-philoso-
phy, and must be judged from a purely historical point of view.
Related words
Pitryana
Pancagnividya
Sanskrit
Devayana — cJcfqH
devayana - ^44H
Dharma
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Dharma — ... righteousness; merit; religious duty; religion; law; a goal of life (purusartha); medium of motion (Jainism); scriptural
texts (Buddhism); quality (Buddhism); cause (Buddhism); religious teaching (Buddhism); unsubstantial and soulless (Buddhism)
(from the verb root dhr = “to uphold, to establish, to suport”)
1. Literally it means “what holds together”; thus, it is the basis of all order, whether social or moral. As an ethical or moral value, it
is the instrumental value to liberation (except for the MTmamsaka who considers it the supreme value).
2. Varna asrama-dharma is one’s specific duty.
3. Sanatana-dharma is the eternal religion.
4. Sva-dharma is one’s own individual duty.
5. Apad-dharma is the dharma prescribed at the time of adversities.
6. Yuga-dharma is the law of time (aeon).
7. Sadharana-dharma is the general obligations or the common duties of each and every individual. It is comprised of virtues like
self-control, kindness, truthfulness, and so on. This is based on the idea that individuals are born with a number of debts and
these duties help to repay one’s debts to humanity.
8. According to Jainism, it is the medium of motion and pervades the entire universe. It is one and eternal. It is neither active itself
nor can it produce action in others. However, it makes the motion of all else possible by providing the movement medium for them.
9. According to Buddhism, the chief definitions of this term include cosmic order, the natural law, the teachings of the Buddha,
norms of conduct, things or facts, ideas, and factors of existence.
10. According to the MTmamsa school, it is what is enjoined in the Veda. It is religious duty, the performance thereof bringing merit
and its neglect bringing demerit.
1 1 . Generally dharma is twofold: sadharana-dharma, which is common to everyone, and varna-asrama-dharma, which is specific
to each class and stage of life.
12. According to Nyaya-Vaisesika, dharma is a specific quality (vlsesaguna) that belongs to the self. However, dharma signifies
merit (punya) rather than right. They believe that dharma is directly perceived, though it takes yogic power to do so. This is done
by means of alaukika-pratyaksa.
13. According to Sankhya-Yoga, dharma is a mode of the intellect (buddhi). It is due to a confusion that one may believe that dhar¬
ma belongs to the empirical sphere and that merit and demerit do not ever touch the trans-empirical individual soul.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
dharma -
that which is established or firm, steadfast decree, statute, ordinance, law;
usage, practice, customary observance or prescribed conduct, duty;
right, justice (often as a synonym of punishment);
virtue, morality, religion, religious merit, good works (dha’rmena ind. or ...mat ind. according to right or rule, rightly, justly, accord¬
ing to the nature of anything; cf. below; ...mesthita mfn. holding to the law, doing one’s duty) AV.;
Law or Justice personified (as Indra SBr. &c.; as Yama MBh.; as born from the right breast of Yama and father of Zama, Kama
and Harsha ib.; as Vishnu Hariv.; as Praja-pati and son-in-law of Daksha Hariv. Mn. &c.; as one of the attendants of the Sun L.; as
a Bull Mn. viii, 16; as a Dove Kathas. vii, 89, &c.);
nature, character, peculiar condition or essential quality, property, mark, peculiarity;
a partic. ceremony MBh.;
sacrifice;
the ninth mansion;
an Upanishad;
associating with the virtuous;
religious abstraction, devotion;
a Soma-drinker;
N. of the 15th Arhat of the present Ava-sarpinT;
of a son of Anu and father of Ghrita;
other names
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Dharma is a complex and multifaceted term in Hindu tradition. It can be translated as “religious law,” “right conduct,” “duty,” and
“social order.” Its root, dhri, means “to hold up.”
The social concept of dharma emerges from the VEDIC notion of RITA or “cosmic order.” In this worldview, dharma (the social or¬
der) is maintained by dharma (right conduct and the fulfillment of duty and religious law). Social activity was traditionally very much
circumscribed by tradition; following dharma meant doing what was required.
Starting as early as the fourth century B.C.E., a voluminous literature in Sanskrit was created called DHARMASHASTRA (authori¬
tative texts on dharma). These included the Dharmasutras (aphoristic texts).
Dharma later became personified as a god in mythology and literature. His son was YUDHISHTHIRA, one of the five PANDAVAS
in the MAHABHARATA story.
In the Jain tradition, dharma refers to the complex of duties required of a Jain. Jains recognize 10 forms of dharma that monks are
to follow. The word dharma can be used in association with any religion or faith, such as the Zoroastrian dharma.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Dharma. One of the four purusharthas, or aims of life, the others being artha (wealth, power, and prosperity), kama (desire), and
moksha (liberation). The concept of dharma is so fundamental to Hindu culture that it cannot be adequately translated by any
single English word— possible translations are “religious law,” “religious duty,” “duty,” “religion,” “law,” or “social order.” The root
meaning for the word dharma comes from a verb meaning “to support” or “to uphold.” Dharma is thus that which supports or
upholds society, which shows why all the aforementioned translations could make sense in context. Dharma provides the overall
regulatory framework for life in the world and gives a sense of ultimate purpose to keep one’s life in balance. Although Hindu cul¬
ture sanctions the pursuit of both power (artha) and pleasure (kama), it is always assumed that both of these will be regulated by
an underlying commitment to dharma, to keep one’s life integrated and balanced.
Wikipedia
The term dharma is an Indian spiritual and religious term, that means one’s righteous duty or any virtuous path in the common
sense of the term. A Hindu’s dharma is affected by a person’s age, class, occupation, and sex. In Indian languages it can be
equivalent simply to religion, depending on context. The word dharma translates as that which upholds or supports, and is gener¬
ally translated into English as law.
Dharma also refers to the teachings and doctrines of the founders of Buddhism and Jainism, the Buddha and Mahavira. In Bud¬
dhist philosophy, dhamma/dharma is also the term for “phenomenon”
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Meditations on the self
Dharma - The most basic quality or intrinsic property by which a thing is what it is. It is the differentia of a species that distinguish¬
es it from all other species. In its ethical connotation, righteousness.
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Dharma: Derived from the root dhr, “to support.” The universal functional system that sustains the world and life. Righteous way of
life fully in harmony with the universal order.
Sankara tradition
Sadananda. Vedantasara, tr. Nikhilananda
Dharma: (1) the course of action enjoined to each particular being by its own nature; (2) one of the four aims of human life, i.e.
attaining righteousness and virtue, the other three aims being Kama (sense-enjoyment), Artha (gaining of wealth) and Moksha
(liberation) as the highest; (3) a common term for righteousness, virtue and religion.
Descriptions
General
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
“Whenever unrighteousness prevails and Righteousness declines, I manifest Myself in a human form to re-establish the Righ¬
teous and to destroy the unrighteous,” says the Lord Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita (IV; 7-8). The word “Dharma”, here rendered,
as is generally done, by “Righteousness”, could also have been rendered by “the Tradition”. For that is the deeper meaning of this
word, much misused by Hindu conservatives and sectarians. It comes from the root “Dhr”, meaning to support, to uphold, to main¬
tain. The Tradition is the support, the only support, of humanity. It upholds and maintains humanity, which, losing it, sinks to the
level of beasts, plants and stones. This is what, according to Hindu tradition, has happened during the progressive “decadence” or
“Fall away” from man’s natural state of communion with God. It is written in the Puranas that Dharma originally went in the shape
of a cow on four legs, in the second age on three, in the third on two, and in the fourth only on one.
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
According to Indian tradition there are four ages, collectively called a Mahayuga, namely, the Satya Yuga (also called Krta Yuga),
or golden age; the Treta Yuga (age), in which righteousness (dharma) decreased by one-fourth; the Dvapara Yuga (age), in which
righteousness (dharma) decreased by one-half; and the present Kali Yuga (age) (lit. the age of quarrel), in which righteousness
(dharma) has decreased three-fourths, considered the most evil of all ages. According to this doctrine each age has its appropri¬
ate scripture (sastra), designed to meet the requirements and needs of men of each age in their effort to attain liberation.
Wikipedia
The various Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, have all accorded a central focus to dharma and
advocate its practice. Each of these religions emphasizes Dharma as the correct understanding of reality in its teachings. In these
traditions, beings that live in accordance with Dharma proceed more quickly toward dharma yukam, moksha or nirvana (personal
liberation). The antonym of dharma is adharma meaning unnatural or immoral.
In traditional Hindu society, dharma has historically denoted a variety of ideas, such as Vedic ritual, ethical conduct, caste rules,
and civil and criminal law. Its most common meaning however regarded two principal ideals; namely, that social life should be
structured through well- defined and well- regulated classes (varna), and that an individual’s life within a class should be organized
into defined stages (ashrama, see dharmasastra).
Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism are called Hindu Dharma, Bauddha-Dharma, Jain-Dharma and Sikh dharma, respec¬
tively.
In Hinduism
In the Rig veda, the belief (or observation) that a natural justice and harmony pervades the natural world becomes manifest in the
concept of rta, which is both ‘nature’s way’ and the order implicit in nature. Thus rta bears a resemblance to the ancient Chinese
concept of tao and the Heraclitan or stoic conception of the logos.
This “power” that lies behind nature, and which keeps everything in balance became a natural forerunner to the idea of dharma as
one can see in this early Vedic prayer. This idea laid the cornerstone of Dharma’s implicit attribution to the “ultimate reality” of the
surrounding universe, in classical Hindu.
The following verse from the Rig-Veda is an example where rta finds mention :
“O Indra, lead us on the path of Rta, on the right path over all evils.” (RV 10.133.6)
The transition of the rta to the modern idea of Dharma occurs in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Upanishads saw dharma as
the universal principle of law, order, harmony, all in all truth, that sprang first from Brahman. It acts as the regulatory moral prin¬
ciple of the Universe. It is sat, truth, a major tenet of Hinduism. This hearkens back to the conception of the Rig Veda that “Ekam
Sat,” (Truth Is One), of the idea that Brahman is “Sacchidananda” (Truth- Consciousness- Bliss). Dharma is not just law, or harmo¬
ny, it is pure Reality. In the Brihadaranyaka’s own words:
“Verily, that which is Dharma is truth.
Therefore they say of a man who speaks truth, ‘He speaks the Dharma,’
or of a man who speaks the Dharma, ‘He speaks the Truth.’
Verily, both these things are the same.”
(Brh. Upanishad, 1.4.14) (2)
In the Mahabharata, Krishna defines Dharma as: “Dhaaranaad dharma ity aahur dharmena vidhrtaah prajaah, Yat syaad dhaara-
na sanyuktam sa dharma iti nishchayah,” or, “Dharma upholds both this- worldly and other- worldly affairs” (Mbh 12.110.11).
In Buddhism
For many Buddhists, the Dharma most often means the body of teachings expounded by the Buddha. The word is also used in
Buddhist phenomenology as a term roughly equivalent to phenomenon, a basic unit of existence and/or experience.
In East Asia, the translation for Dharma is )£, pronounced fa in Mandarin, beop in Korean, ho in Japanese, and phap in Vietnam¬
ese. However, the term Dharma can also be transliterated from its original form.
The tradition says that the Buddha spent forty- nine days in the neighborhood of the Bodhi Tree. Then the two merchants en route
from Orissa passed close by and were advised by the spirit of a dead relative to make offerings to the new Buddha, who was
sitting at the foot of a certain tree. They offered honey cakes and sugar cane and “took refuge in the Buddha and his Dharma, thus
becoming the first Buddhists and the first lay devotees in the world.”
In this case, Gautama did not preach Dharma to the two men, but merely received their reverence and offerings. Worship of holy
persons is nonsectarian, and does not involve subscribing to their ideas. The Buddhist lay cult is here shown developing naturally
out of pre- Buddhist practices.
In Zoroastrianism
Daena (din in modern Persian) is the eternal Law, whose order was revealed to humanity through the Mathra- Spenta (“Holy
Words”). Daena has been used to mean religion, faith, law, even as a translation for the Hindu and Buddhist term Dharma, often
interpreted as “duty” or social order, right conduct, or virtue. The metaphor of the ‘path’ of Daena is represented in Zoroastrianism
by the muslin undershirt Sudra, the ‘Good/Holy Path’, and the 72- thread Kushti girdle, the “Pathfinder”.
In Sikhism
For Sikhs, the word “Dharma” means the “path of righteousness”. What is the “righteous path”? That is the question that the Sikh
scriptures attempt to answer. The main holy scriptures of the Sikhs is called the Guru Granth Sahib (SGGS.) It is considered to be
more than a holy book of the Sikhs. The Sikhs treat this Granth (holy book) as a living Guru. The holy text spans 1430 pages and
contains the actual words spoken by the Sikh Gurus and various other Saints from other religions including Hinduism and Islam.
Sikh Dharma is a distinct religion revealed through the teachings often Gurus who are accepted by the followers as if they were
spiritually the same. The Gurus are considered “the divine light” and they conveyed Gurbani (the word of God) in the form of the
Guru Granth Sahib to the world. In this faith, God is described as both Nirgun (transcendent) and Sargun (immanent). Further,
God pervades in His creation and is omnipresent, but cannot be incarnate. The principal Sikh belief lays stress on one’s actions
and deeds rather than people’s religious labels, rituals or outward appearance or signs.
In Jainism
Dharma is natural. Jain Acharya Samantabhadra writes: “Vatthu sahavo dhammo” the dharma is the nature of an object. It is the
nature of the soul to be free, thus for the soul, the dharma ia paralaukika, beyond worldly. However the nature of the body is to
seek self-preservation and be engaged in pleasures.
Thus there are two dharmas.
The two Dharmas
Acharya Haribhadra (approx. 6-7th cent.) discusses dharma in Dharma-Bindu. he writes (Translation by Y. Malaiya):
Because of the difference in practice, dharma is of two kinds, for the householders and for the monks.
Of the householder’s dharma, there are two kinds,’’ordinary” and “special”
The ordinary dharma of the householder should be carried out according to tradition, such that it is not objectionable, according to
ones abilities such as wealth, in accordance with nyaya (everyone treated fairly and according to laws).
Somadeva suri (10th c.) terms the “ordinary” and “special” dharmas laukika (“worldly”) and pralaukika (“extra- worldly”) respective¬
ly:
A householder follows both laukika and the paralaukika dharmas at the same time.
Sankara tradition
Sankara. Atmabodha, tr. Nikhilananda
Commentary by Nikhilananda:
Dharma is righteousness; it is the law of inner growth and the basis of man’s actions. It is in harmony with a man’s spiritual evolu¬
tion. Therefore by following dharma one attains success in all actions. By negating dharma one brings confusion into one’s life and
retards the clock of progress. Dharma is not a sort of duty imposed from outside, but a sense of righteousness, integrity, and hon¬
our with which one is born as a result of past actions. So every man has his own dharma, in consequence of which he reacts in his
own unique way to the outside world. His education and environment give to this basic life-form only an outer shape. By fulfilling
his dharma a man marches along the path of progress until he attains the supreme dharma of all beings, namely, the realization of
Truth.
Etymology
General
Wikipedia
In the Rigveda, the word appears as an n- stem, dhrman-, with a range of meanings encompassing “something established or
firm” (in the literal sense of prods or poles), figuratively “sustainer, supporter” (of deities), and semantically similar to the Greek
ethos (“fixed decree, statute, law”). In Classical Sanskrit, the noun becomes thematic, dharma-.
It is a derivation from Proto-lndo-lranian root *dhar- (“to fasten, to support, to hold”), in turn reflecting Proto- Indo- European root
*dher- (“to hold”), which is in Sanskrit is reflected as class- 1 root Vdhr. Etymologically it is related to Avestan Vdar- (“to hold”), Old
Persian Vdar- (“to hold, have”), Latin frenum (“rein, horse tack”), Lithuanian dereti (“to be suited, fit”) and OCS drbzati (“to hold,
possess”). Classical Sanskrit word dharmas would formally match with Latin o-stem firmus < *PIE *dher- mo-s “holding”, were it
not for its historical development from earlier Rigvedic n- stem.
From the Atharvaveda and in Classical Sanskrit, the stem is thematic, dharma- (DevanagarT: £R*T), and in Pali, it takes the form
dhamma. It is also often rendered dharam in contemporary Indian languages and dialects. It is used in most or all philosophies
and religions of Indian origin—sometimes summarized under the umbrella term of Dharmic faiths—including Hinduism, Buddhism,
Jainism, and Sikhism. It is difficult to provide a single concise definition for dharma, as the word has a long and varied history and
straddles a complex set of meanings and interpretations.
Related words
Artha
Kama
Moksha
Purushartha, the four goals of human life
Rama
Rita
Opposite: Adharma
Sanskrit
Dharma — Vjif
dharma - srnr
Dharma Sastra
Variant spellings
dharma sastra
dharma shastra
dharma-sastra
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Dharma-sastra — ... Law Book
1. The texts codifying customary law.
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Dharmashastra. The Indian literary genre of Dharmashastra (authoritative scripture prescribing the rules of right conduct) began
around the fourth century B.C.E. It included the subgenre of Dharmasutras, or aphoristic works about DHARMA. Traditionally, the
LAWS OF MANU (Manusmriti or Manavadharmashastra) is considered the first and most authoritative text, written by the leg¬
endary MANU. Dharmashastra literature prescribes the laws, norms, rules, and regulations of life for both the individual and the
community. It covers social norms, ethics, and moral tenets but also includes direction on the proper performance of rituals and
ceremonies. It is usually quite specific concerning diet, domestic law, the proper conduct of kings, and, most important, the proper
conduct of each caste. Major Dharmashastras were written by Apastamba, Gautama, Baudhayana, and Vasishtha, among others.
Wikipedia
Dharmasastra... is a genre of Sanskrit texts and refers to the sastra, or Indie branch of learning, pertaining to Hindu dharma, re¬
ligious and legal duty. The voluminous textual corpus of Dharmasastra is primarily a product of the Brahmanical tradition in India
and represents the elaborate scholastic system of an expert tradition.
Descriptions
General
Wikipedia
Because of its sophisticated jurisprudence, Dharmasastra was taken by early British colonial administrators to be the law of the
land for Hindus in India. Ever since, Dharmasastra has been linked with Hindu law, despite the fact that its contents deal as
much or more with religious life as with law. In fact, a separation of religion and law within Dharmasastra is artificial and has been
repeatedly questioned. Others have, however, argued for a distinction of religious and secular law within Dharmasastra. Dhar¬
masastra is important within the Hindu tradition—first, as a source of religious law describing the life of an ideal householder and,
second, as symbol of the summation of Hindu knowledge about religion, law, ethics, etc.
Pandurang Vaman Kane, a great Sanskritist..., continued the earlier tradition of scholarship. His monumental work entitled the
“History of the Dharmasastra”, published in five volumes in the 20th century, is an encyclopedia of ancient social laws and cus¬
toms.
All Dharmasastras derive its authority with reference to the Vedas, though few, if any, of the contents of most Dharmasastra texts
can be directly linked with extant Vedic texts. Traditionally, Dharmasastra has, since the time of the Yajnvalkyasmrti, been divided
into three major topics: 1) acara, rules pertaining to daily rituals, life-cycle rites, and other duties of four castes or varnas, 2) vya-
vahara, rules pertaining to the procedures for resolving doubts about dharma and rules of substantive law categorized according
the standard eighteen titles of Hindu law, and 3) prayascitta, rules about expiations and penances for violations of the rules of
dharma.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. The word of the Guru
When examining a Dharma Sastra (code belonging to ritual commandments, injunctions and prohibitions) one has to look for the
vidhi or rules to be unquestionably followed. As with the soldier on the battlefield - 'their’s not to question why, their’s but to do or
die,’ - it is final. But the obligatory nature of the Sastra changes in the Uttara (later) Mimamsa (critique) where one can discuss and
question with the guru. Arthavada (discussion of implications) becomes not only permissible, but something encouraged by the
guru.
Related words
Smriti
Sanskrit
Dharma sastra —
dharma-sastra - UTWtqTIT
Dhyana
Variant spellings
dhyana
dhyana
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Dhyana — ... meditation, (total) concentration.
1. The mind flowing in an unbroken current toward a particular object.
2. The seventh limb of Patanjali’s astanga-yoga.
3. One of the six virtues (paramita) in Buddhism.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
dhyana -
meditation, thought, reflection, (esp.) profound and abstract religious meditation;
mental representation of the personal attributes of a deity;
insensibility, dulness;
N. of the 11th day of the light half in Brahma’s month
Wikipedia
Dhyana in Sanskrit (Devanagari: spTPT) or jhana (stpt ) in Pali can refer to either meditation or meditative states. Equivalent terms
are “Chan” in modern Chinese, “Zen” in Japanese, “Seon” in Korean, “Thien” in Vietnamese, and “Samten” in Tibetan.
As a meditative state, dhyana is characterized by profound stillness and concentration.... There has been little scientific study of
the states so far.
Narayana Guru tradition
Narayana. One hundred verses of Self-instruction
Commentary by Nataraja:
dhyana - establishing bipolar contemplation with the higher self.
Descriptions
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
The term dhyana (meditation) is used by Jains, Buddhists, and Hindus, with somewhat different technical meanings.
The Jains may very well have been the first to practice meditation. Their tradition does not preserve a great deal of information
about the early practice; there is no mention of PRANAYAMA or breath control, but dharana (focus), as known to the PATANJALI
Yoga tradition, was apparently included.
Jain tradition has four types of dhyana: artadhyana (focus on things unpleasant or sorrowful), raudradhyana (focus on cruel and
perverse things), dharmyadhyana (virtuous concentration), and shukladhyana (pure concentration). Most literature on the SIDDHA
(perfected beings) and TIRTHANKARAS (most exalted personages) refers to the shukladhyana state, which involves intense con¬
centration.
In the Hindu tradition, the term dhyana first appears in the Upanishads, in a handful of places, used as a rather generic term. By
the time of the epics (c. seventh century B.C.E. to third century C.E.), dhyana was a well-established practice. Most later Hindu
YOGA traditions derive from raja yoga or Patanjali Yoga, where dhyana is a refined meditative practice that is taken up after one
has mastered pranayama, or breath control, and dharana, “mental focus.” It is a deeper concentration of the mind, eventually lead¬
ing to the SAMADHI state, which involves highly concentrated focus on the highest reality (or realities).
In other yogic traditions, those practicing dhyana focus on a MANTRA (recited word or phrase); a YANTRA, or sacred diagram; or
an ISHTA DEVATA, or chosen divinity.
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
The Sixth Lesson [Gheranda Samhita] is on Dhyana or Contemplation. It applies to the Sphere of Ether, the Paradise, ruled by the
Guru. The first verse is: “(1) Dhyana (contemplation) is of three kinds: gross, subtle and luminous. When a particular figure, such
as one’s Guru or Deity, is contemplated, it is Sthula (gross) contemplation. When Brahma or Prakriti (Mater-Materia) is contem¬
plated as a mass of light, it is called Jyotis (luminous) contemplation. When Brahma as a Bindu (symbolic point) and Kundali Pow¬
er are contemplated, it is Sukshma (subtle) contemplation.” — The very practical hints for meditation are well worth quoting, giving
ample variety of choice for people focussed on any particular plane, and providing a richness of form and a beauty which appeals
to the emotional-imaginative life, combined with a methodical rational construction.
Wikipedia
According to the Hindu Yoga Sutra, written by Patanjali, dhyana is one of the eight methods of Yoga, (the other seven steps are
Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana, and Samadhi).
In the Ashtanga Yoga of Patanjali, the stage of meditation preceding dhyana is called dharana. In Dhyana, the meditator is not
conscious of the act of meditation (i.e. is not aware that s/he is meditating) but is only aware that s/he exists (consciousness of
being), and aware of the object of meditation. Dhyana is distinct from Dharana in that the meditator becomes one with the object
of meditation. He/she is then able to maintain this oneness for 144 inhalations and expirations.
Dhyana, practiced together with Dharana and Samadhi constitutes the Samyama.
The Dhyana Yoga system is specifically described by Sri Krishna in chapter 6 of the famous Bhagavad Gita, wherein He explains
the many different Yoga systems to His friend and disciple, Arjuna. In fact Lord Shankar described 108 different ways to do Dhya¬
na to Mata Parvati.
In Hinduism, dhyana is considered to be an instrument to gain self knowledge, separating maya from reality to help attain the
ultimate goal of moksa. Depictions of Hindu yogis performing dhyana are found in ancient texts and in statues and frescoes of
ancient Indian temples.
The Bhagavad Gita, thought to have been written some time between 400 and 100 BC, talks of four branches of yoga:
Karma Yoga: The yoga of action in the world
Jnana yoga: The yoga of Wisdom and intellectual endeavor
Bhakti Yoga: The yoga of devotion to God
Dhyana Yoga: The yoga of meditation
Dhyana in Raja Yoga is also found in Patanjali’s Yoga SGtras. Practiced together with dharana and samadhi it constitutes the
samyama.
For example, in the Jangama Dhyana technique, the meditator concentrates the mind and sight between the eyebrows. According
to Patanjali, this is one method of achieving the initial concentration (dharana: Yoga Sutras, III: 1) necessary for the mind to be¬
come introverted in meditation (dhyana: Yoga Sutras, III: 2). In deeper practice of the technique, the mind concentrated between
the eyebrows begins to automatically lose all location and focus on the watching itself. Eventually, the meditator experiences only
the consciousness of existence and achieves self realization. Swami Vivekananda describes the process in the following way:
When the mind has been trained to remain fixed on a certain internal or external location, there comes to it the power of flowing in
an unbroken current, as it were, towards that point. This state is called dhyana. When one has so intensified the power of dhyana
as to be able to reject the external part of perception and remain meditating only on the internal part, the meaning, that state is
called Samadhi.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Bhagavad Gita
STUDENT: Does dhyana mean “meditation” or “contemplation”?
TEACHER: Neither of these terms are apt to bring out the proper meaning of the Sanskrit term dhyana. It is actually a state in
which the tranquillity of consciousness is not disturbed by any specific modulation.
Ramakrishna tradition
Vivekananda. Raja Yoga
The mind tries to think of one object, to hold itself to one particular spot, as the top of the head, the heart, etc., and if the mind suc¬
ceeds in receiving the sensations only through that part of the body, and through no other part, that would be Dharana, and when
the mind succeeds in keeping itself in that state for some time it is called Dhyana (meditation).
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
D.: What is dhyana?
M.: Dhyana is holding on to a single thought and putting off all other thoughts.
D.: What is to be meditated upon?
M.: Anything that you prefer.
D.: Siva, Vishnu, and Gayatri are said to be equally efficacious. Which should I meditate upon?
M.: Any one you like best. They are all equal in their effect. But you should stick to one.
D.: How to meditate?
M.: Concentrate on that one whom you like best. If a single thought prevails, all other thoughts are put off and finally eradicated.
So long as diversity prevails there are bad thoughts. When the object of love prevails only good thoughts hold the field. Therefore
hold on to one thought only. Dhyana is the chief practice.
A little later Sri Bhagavan continued:
Dhyana means fight. As soon as you begin meditation other thoughts will crowd together, gather force and try to sink the single
thought to which you try to hold. The good thought must gradually gain strength by repeated practice. After it has grown strong the
other thoughts will be put to flight.
This is the battle royal always taking place in meditation.
One wants to rid oneself of misery. It requires peace of mind, which means absence of perturbation owing to all kinds of thoughts.
Peace of mind is brought about by dhyana alone.
D.: What is the need then for pranayama?
M.: Pranayama is meant for one who cannot directly control the thoughts. It serves as a brake to a car. But one should not stop
with it, as I said before, but must proceed to pratyahara, dharana and dhyana. After the fruition of dhyana, the mind will come un¬
der control even in the absence of pranayama.
The asanas (postures) help pranayama, which helps dhyana in its turn, and peace of mind results. Here is the purpose of hatha
yoga.
Later Sri Bhagavan continued:
When dhyana is well established it cannot be given up. It will go on automatically even when you are engaged in work, play or
enjoyment. It will persist in sleep too. Dhyana must become so deep-rooted that it will be natural to one.
D.: What rite or action is necessary for the development of dhyana?
M.: Dhyana is itself the action, the rite and the effort. It is the most intense and potent of all. No other effort is necessary.
Sankara tradition
Sadananda. Vedantasara, tr. Nikhilananda
Meditation (Dhyana) is the intermittent resting of the mental state on Brahman, the One without a second.
Commentary by Nikhilananda:
[Intermittent—Because of deficiency in concentration. This shows the difference between Dhyana and Samadhi.]
See: Upasana and dhyana
Related words
Samadhi
Upasana
Sanskrit
Dhyana — votH
dhyana - SPTTT
Dukha
Variant spellings
dukha
duhkha
duhkha
dukham
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Duhkha — ... pain; suffering; sorrow; grief; unhappiness; that which is unsatisfactory (because it is impermanent)
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
duhkha -
(according to grammarians properly written dus-kha and said to be from dus and kha [cf. su-kha’] ; but more probably a Prakritized
form for duh-stha q.v.) uneasy, uncomfortable, unpleasant, difficult;
uneasiness, pain, sorrow, trouble, difficulty;
to be sad or uneasy;
to cause or feel pain
Ramakrishna tradition
Nirmalananda. Commentary on the Bhagavad Gita
Pain = dukham. Dukham is pain, suffering, misery, sorrow, grief, unhappiness, stress, or distress-also that which is unsatisfactory
or produces dukha.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Duhkha — from dur = “bad” + kha = “state”
Related words
Manomaya kosha
Opposite: Sukha
Sanskrit
Duhkha —
duhkha -
Dvaita
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Dvaita — ... dual; duality; dualism.
I.The name given to Madhvacarya’s system of philosophy. It is a school of Vedanta which teaches that God, the individual souls,
and the world of matter are all eternally separate and real.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
dvaita -
duality, duplicity, dualism
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Dvaita (from dvi, two) is usually translated as “dualist.” In theological terms it refers to the notion that God is completely separate
and different from the human soul.
Abrahamic traditions in their normative form— Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—would be seen as dvaita or dualistic because
they believe that the human soul is a separate entity and reality from God. Normative Hinduism tends toward forms of ADVAITA,
non-dualism, the opposite of dvaita. But there are some Indian systems that are truly dvaita in nature. One form of VEDANTA,
championed by MADHVA, a 12th-century sage, is authentically dvaita. Also, the South Indian tradition of Shaiva Siddhanta can be
classified as dvaita.
Wikipedia
Dvaita ... (also known as Bheda-vada, Tattva-vada and Bimba-pratibimba-vada) is a school of Vedanta founded by Shri Madh-
vacharya. Dvaita stresses a strict distinction between God (Brahman) and individual souls (jivas). According to Madhvacharya,
souls are not ‘created’ by God but do, nonetheless, depend on Him for their existence.
Descriptions
General
Wikipedia
Like Ramanuja, Madhvacharya espoused a Vaishnava theology that understands God to be endowed with attributes and a per¬
sonal God. By Brahman, he referred to Vishnu, as per his statement “brahmashabdashcha vishhnaveva” that Brahman can only
refer to Vishnu. Madhva states that Vishnu is not just any other deity, but rather the singularly all-important Supreme One. Vishnu
is always the primary object of worship, with all others regarded as subordinate to Him. The deities and other sentient beings are
graded among themselves, with Vayu, the god of life, being the highest, and Vishnu eternally above them.
Dvaita or (Indian) Dualistic philosophy is not to be confused with the Western “Dualism” that posits two ‘independent’ principles.
Although Madhva’s Dualism acknowledges two principles, it holds one of them (the sentient) rigorously and eternally dependent
on the other (Vishnu/God).
Five fundamental, eternal and real differences exist in his system.
Between the individual soul (orjTva) and God (Ishvara or Vishnu).
Between matter (inanimate, insentient) and God.
Among individual souls (jivas)
Between matter and jTva.
Among various types of matter.
These five differences are said to make up the universe. The universe is aptly called “prapancha” for this reason.
Madhva differed significantly from traditional Hindu beliefs, owing to his concept of eternal damnation. For example, he divides
souls into three classes. One class of souls, which qualify for liberation (Mukti-yogyas), another subject to eternal rebirth or eternal
transmigration (Nitya-samsarins) and a third class that is eventually condemned to eternal hell or andhatamas (Tamo-yogyas). No
other Hindu philosopher or school of Hinduism holds such beliefs. In contrast, most Hindus believe in universal salvation; that all
souls will eventually obtain moksha, even if after millions of rebirths.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
An educated visitor asked Bhagavan about dvaita and advaita.
M.: Identification with the body is dvaita. Non-identification is advaita.
Related words
Advaita Vedanta
Vedanta
Visishta-Advaita
Sanskrit
Dvaita —
dvaita - ^fttr
E,F
Ekagrata
Variant spellings
ekagrata
ekagrata
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Ekagrata — ... one-pointed; close attention
1. The one-pointed mind is that which is devoted to a single object. It is a mind filled with purity, luminosity (sattva).
2. According to Buddhism, one of the five elements which comprise meditation.
3. According to the Yoga school, it is a stage of the mind (citta) in which one concentrates steadily on an object for a long time.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
ekagrata -
intentness in the pursuit of one object, close and undisturbed attention
Wikipedia
Ekagrata ... is translated as either “one-pointedness” or “unification”.
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. Bhagavad Gita
Ekagrata: One-pointed attention and concern, particularly with regard to the attainment of the final goal of life.
Descriptions
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Teachings of Ramana Maharshi in his own words
B.: Breath-control is also a help. It is one of the various methods that are intended to help us attain ekagrata or onepointedness of
mind. Breath-control can also help to control the wandering mind and attain this one-pointedness and therefore it can be used. But
one should not stop there. After obtaining control of the mind through breath-control, one should not rest content with any experi¬
ences which may accrue therefrom but should harness the controlled mind to the question, ‘Who am I?’ till the mind merges in the
Self.
Sanskrit
Ekagrata — VcFHT
ekagrata -
Five elements
See: Bhutas; Mahabhutas
G
Ganesha
Variant spellings
Ganesha
ganesa
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Ganesa — .. elephant-headed son of Siva and Parvatl; remover of obstacles; lord of the hosts; lord of wisdom; lord of beginnings
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
ganesa -
N. of the god of wisdom and of obstacles (son of Siva and Parvatl, or according to one legend of Parvatl alone; though Ganesa
causes obstacles he also removes them; hence he is invoked at the commencement of all undertakings and at the opening of all
compositions with the words namo ganesaya vighnesvaraya; he is represented as a short fat man with a protuberant belly, fre¬
quently riding on a rat or attended by one, and to denote his sagacity has the head of an elephant, which however has only one
tusk; the appellation Ganesa, with other similar compounds, alludes to his office as chief of the various classes of subordinate
gods, who are regarded as Siva’s attendants; ... he is said to have written down the MBh. as dictated by Vyasa MBh.;
N. of Siva MBh.
Descriptions
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Ganesha, lord of beginnings and remover of obstacles, is probably the most worshipped divinity of the Hindu pantheon. With the
head of an elephant and a human body that shows a protruding belly—the sign of Ganesha’s fondness for sweets—the god is
a central figure in the cult of SHIVA, as the elder son of Shiva and PARVATI. He is also worshipped as a deity on his own, as is
shown in Ganesha PURANA. Nearly every Indian PUJA or worship service commences with verses to and adoration of Ganesha.
The figure of the sitting Ganesha and his incongruous vehicle, the rat, is found near the entranceway or one of the entranceways
of many, many Hindu temples.
As is usual in Hindu mythology and lore, there are many and various stories about the events of Ganesha’s life. The most com¬
mon story of his origin is that he was made by Parvati, who rubbed off material from her skin and formed it into a shape of a per¬
son. She set this “child” Ganesha to guard her shower or inner chamber. Shiva, unaware of this, found Ganesha at his post and
thinking that he was a lover or intruder he cut off the child’s head. Scolded by an angry Parvati, Shiva hastily rushed off to find a
new head for the child and returned with the head of an elephant.
In one popular story Parvati declares a race around the universe between the ponderous Ganesha and his younger brother, Skan-
da or KARTTIKEYA. The younger boy takes off on his swift peacock vehicle swift as lightning, leaving the slow Ganesha with his
pitiful rat vehicle far behind. Thinking a moment, Ganesha realizes that his mother and father themselves constitute the entire
universe. He simply walks around his mother and father and wins the race. Ganesha is also said to have written down the MA-
HABHARATA epic as quickly as its reciter VYASA was able to tell it. For this Ganesha broke off one of his tusks to use as a sty¬
lus. In South India Ganesha is known as a bachelor, but in other parts of India he is seen as married.
Iconographically Ganesha appears in many poses and forms, but he is most often sitting, accompanied by the rat, with one tusk
broken. Most often he is shown with two arms, but he is also depicted with several pairs. In his hands are sweets, his tusk, an axe,
a noose, or an elephant goad.
After his popularity had been well established in the Brahminical tradition, Ganesha appeared in Jain tradition as well, in which he
was seen as a remover of obstacles. Outside India Ganesha is found in Buddhist contexts as a TANTRIC deity, with sometimes
unbenign characteristics. He is found in Southeast Asian art, in Tibet, in China, and even in Japan. The cult of Ganesha is proba¬
bly quite old, originating in the worship of the elephant, but its actual origin is difficult to determine.
The cult is visible in extant sources dating from the fourth century C.E. He is not mentioned at all in earlier texts such as the Ma-
habharata or the RAMAYANA, in which Shiva and VISHNU and their emerging cults are developing.
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
The Deity that watches over the beginning of the Spiritual Path in Hindu tradition is the Elephant-headed God Ganapati. His
Jayanthi or “victory-day of birth”, symbolizing the spiritual birth, is celebrated in the period of Capricorn. The word “Ganapati”
means “Lord of hosts” or “Lord of quantities”. These quantities form the parallel of the “Sands of time” in the Sand-clock, which is
a symbol of Saturn. Pan is also Lord of Ouantities. While unity or oneness belongs to the Divine, multiplicity pertains to the Tinanic
world. Titanic multiplicity and Divine oneness can only meet in an Intelligence or Power who is at one and the same time Titan and
God. We have seen that that is Saturn.
Ganapati or Ganesa, “the God of Ganas”, is like Saturn a Sower. One Ganapati scripture has a verse: “Innumerable Univers¬
es were born from his belly, of this there is no doubt.” Ganapati is worshipped at the beginning of every religious rite, and at the
beginning of every important enterprise, by the devout Hindu. For he watches over the beginning of the Path. The belief is, that no
obstacles can be overcome, and no progress made, on the Spiritual Path, without the guidance, help and blessings of this God,
who stands ever at the cross-roads of human choice. He is the Lord of Karmic causes-and-effects, hence he is the “Bringer and
Remover of Obstacles”. Capricorn, the stage he represents, is the “crucial” stage on the Path. The time comes when the Titanic
multiple fragments, numerous as the particles of sand or the dust of the Earth, should be reunited to Divine Union. The time comes
when a soul should choose the Return Path to GOD, that is, Reality. Hercules, at the beginning of his heroic career, had to make
the choice at the Cross-roads. That choice lies before one and all. The opportunity traditionally suited for it comes in the time when
the Cycles meet, marked by the winter solstice. Ganapati is called “the Lord of the Two Paths” which are the Pitri-yana or “Path of
the Ancestors”, and the Deva-yana or “Path of the Gods”. The “Ancestors” are the symbols of the forces of Karma, as we shall see
later. The Two Paths begin from the winter solstice, leading in opposite directions. In some contexts they are associated with both
the winter and the summer solstices. When we compare the situations in the heavens of the first points of Capricorn and Cancer,
with which the two solstices are connected, the one, the Path of Heaven, is high above, from the point of view of a beholder on
earth, while the other, the Path of Hell, is deep underneath, in the opposite direction.
Ganapati shares some of his Saturnian characteristics with Siva, his Father, and some with Yama, the God of Death. All three
Gods are Initiators into a higher, spiritual, mode of life.
Occasionally Ganapati is represented with five heads: one in each of the four directions and one crowning them. These symbol¬
ize, like the four angles of a pyramid, with the fifth at the top, the Four Elements Earth, Water, Fire and Air, sprung from the Fifth,
the Quintessence, Ether. Images of Ganapati are found, usually in small shrines, at cross-roads and in the doorways of countless
houses.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. An intelligent mans guide to the Hindu religion
GANAPATI
Ganapati comes first. The first obeisance is to him. Everything auspicious should begin with a consecration to Ganapati or Gane-
sha is the Lord of the Hosts (Ganas). The two ganas are the shining ones (devas) and the dead souls, ancestors, or pitris. The
devas belong to the ascending path and the pitris to the descending path. The ascending path leads to the world of the intelligibles
and the descending path binds us to actualities with the strings of action. Being the lord of both, Ganesha can offer us obstacles
as well as release.
Ganesha in Sanskrit is etymologically related to Janus. Janus is the same as ‘Yana’ which means path. The Roman God Janus
was symbolically representing initiation into a new mode of life. Ganapati as a Guru is the guiding principle at the crossroads of
life. To stand at the crossroads not knowing the path to realization is not an uncommon experience of those who seek wisdom.
Those who are wise take a hint from the finger post and proceed in the right direction. The finger post stands for the silent Guru.
The Guru is truly the light that shows us the way. All those who deny the light stumble in darkness. Accepting the Guru is the
same as accepting Ganapati as the Vigneshvara and denying the Guru is like getting caught in the noose of obstacles.
Ganapati as a Connecting Link
India’s spiritual glory was at its climax even before the growth of Aryan society in India. The pre-Aryan civilization was essentially
contemplative, but negative. Siva was the central figure in their spiritual life. He was worshipped as the supreme Guru. The depart¬
ed ones were considered to be in his care. The pre-Aryan civilization at its best was one of renunciation. Tyaga (relinquishment)
was its hallmark. But in its extremity it amounted to a total denial of life. This negation of possible enjoyment was not appreciated
by the Aryans. In the Bhagavad Gita, when Arjuna shows his preparedness to beg in the street rather than wage war, Krshna re¬
fers to his attitude of negativism as anaryajushtam--an attitude that displeases the Aryans.
The Aryan concept of the good life is to have a happy life here and now, as well as in the hereafter, enjoying all the good things of
the world. For the Aryan it was a covetable virtue to possess beautiful and chaste wives, many virtuous sons, thousands of good
cows, plenty of food and reputation. The Aryan gods can smile. They even worshipped the light and fire. Yajna (sacrifice) for the
shining ones was dear to them.
In the concept of Ganapati the pre-Aryan contemplative and negative traditions of India merge into the Aryan positivism. The
South and North get linked in his worship. In the havana or fire sacrifice of Ganapati, the tila and coconut of South India find a
place in the agnihotra which was foreign to their tradition.
According to tradition, the Mahabharata, the great epic of India written by Vyasa, the greatest revaluator of Indian spirituality, was
dictated by him to Ganapati, and Ganapati wrote it with his broken tusk, using it as a pen. This story throws light on the entire spir¬
itual background of India. Ganapati is the son of Siva. Siva as we know was the prehistoric God-Guru of India. As a literary device
Vyasa introduces the spiritual values of the happy Vedic life to the austere contemplatives who had no regard for the simple joys
of life. The Bhagavad Gita, the finalized wisdom textbook, itself comes in the middle of the Mahabharata epic. From this it is evi¬
dent that Ganapati’s real role in Indian spiritual life is to effect a unitive integration of the diverse trends in religious understanding
and practices in spite of their apparent differences.
Vyasa was the great preserver of traditions. He compiled and arranged the Vedas in their present comprehensive form. The highly
profound teachings of the Upanishads were strung together by him in the Vedanta Sutras. He composed the Mahabharata and the
Bhagavad Gita. Thus he happened to be the great custodian of India’s highest spiritual tradition. Ganesha sat at his feet and lis¬
tened to his finalized wisdom teaching. Symbolically, Vyasa presents Ganapati as the wisdom teacher forever for the preservation
of the tradition.
The Lotus-Carved Seat
Ganapati is seated on a pedestal resembling the fully opened petals of a lotus flower. The lotus is a sign of wisdom born of de¬
votion or contemplative mysticism. To sit is to be established. To sit on a lotus seat is to be a Guru to proclaim the tradition. This
symbol refers to Ganapati’s Guruhood.
The Crown on the Head
To have a crown or a halo is the same as being anointed, with chrism or sanctified oil. The Christos or Christhood of Jesus refers
to the same anointing. The “Anointed One” is the divinely blessed or commissioned teacher of the supreme wisdom. As a crowned
king has full authority over the region he rules, so Ganapati has absolute authority over both avidya (nescience) and vidya (knowl¬
edge).
Big Ears
Being elephant-headed, Ganapati has very wide and long ears. Ears are for hearing. Wisdom never comes unsought. True wis¬
dom is well-established in such a knowledge which is beyond the dualities of subjective-objective division. For all those who have
not attained it there is the absolute necessity to sit at the feet of a Guru. Wisdom literature in India of the highest order is called
shruti, which literally means that which is heard. In ancient days there were no written books to read. The tradition of India was to
listen to a Guru. Listening, in Sanskrit is shravana. One who listened to many great Gurus was known as a bahu-shruta.
Listening to a Guru and learning the shruti is an essential part of brahmacarya the “treading of the path of the Absolute”. Thus
in any true education worth that name, the disciple has to establish a reciprocal relationship with the Guru. Both the Guru and
shishya should have only one common interest. Disadoption on the part of the disciple or the Guru is the greatest tragedy in the
seeker’s life. In Europe unfortunately this tragedy was repeated several times. The breaking away of Aristotle from Plato was a
colossal blow to the Socratic tradition. On the other hand in India even a Guru of our own time can trace back the parampara
(hierarchical succession) to Adi-Narayana bringing in Brahma, Vasishtha, Sakti, Parashara, Vyasa, Suka, Gaudapada, Govinda,
Sankara, Padmapada, Hastamalaka and his own Guru, all in the vertical line of succession or parampara. To be initiated into the
secret of all secrets contained in the shrutis it is absolutely necessary to sit at the feet of a wisdom teacher and listen to him with
one-pointed attention. The big ears of Ganapati are a symbol of shraddha, faithful attentive listening to the wisdom teaching.
Small Eyes
Eyes are to see. There are two poles. The outer organ is to contact the various and variegated objects; the inner pole brings the
orientation of unitive vision. The wide opened eyes of the extrovert sees the big bewildering world around him in which he is only
an insignificant individual caught in the competitive world of technology, and mechanism. To have a comprehensive vision of the
cosmos with its starry heavens as a complementary counterpart of the awareness within introspection is necessary. We should
turn our eyes inwards and look into our own mind to discover our real self. We live, as it were, in two worlds, the cosmological
world of objective phenomena and the subjective world of values within our own being. To link these two worlds in one’s own
knowledge and to be non-dualistic, we have to be contemplative. Contemplative introspection is symbolically expressed by the
small half-closed eyes of Ganapati.
Introspective contemplation in Sanskrit is known as manana. Svadhyaya or study of the scripture is to be followed by critical con¬
templation. It is not mainly for adoration that we stand before the altar of Ganapati. We should be able to read the silent language
of contemplation in his symbolic features. His eyes require us to meditate and ponder on the values of life and the nature of our
self.
The Long Proboscis
On hearing some intriguing news we say we smell danger. On hearing something unpleasant we screw up our nose, as if it had
sensed some foul smell. A dog recognizes its master by smell. Even a pig will not care to eat something which does not give it a
favorable smell. In all these instances we find the nose is associated with the function of discriminating between the pleasant and
the unpleasant, the favorable and the unfavorable. This discriminative faculty at its best enables us to recognize the perennial
from the falsehood. In Sankara’s Vivekacudamani the first qualification of the wisdom seeker is viveka or discrimination, followed
by vairagya (absolute detachment). Keeping oneself detached is a discipline. It refers to the practical aspect of spiritual life. The
symbolism of the ear teaches us to listen to the wisdom teaching. The symbolism of the eye refers to its critical consideration and
sympathetic appreciation. The symbolism of the nose consequently teaches us to apply that wisdom in our everyday life. In San¬
skrit it is named nididhyasana.
The Broken Tusk
Ganapati is shown with a broken tusk. According to tradition this deformity was caused by Parashurama who was an advocate
of pure brahmanism. Ganapati as the son of Siva was naturally his opponent. But the latter’s acceptance of brahmanical values
amounted to his tusk being broken. The tusk, as we know, shows his individuality. Even those who become adepts of the high¬
est wisdom develop a spiritual ego. The story of Vishvamitra illustrates such an instance. This spiritual ego is much worse than a
worldly ego. It should be broken. Narayana Guru in his Atmopadesha Satakam says:
Skin and bone and excreta,
With all those traits of inner life
Which suffering do portend;
These know, one ego wields;
The other, growing
Doth fullness attain;
From self-gratification to save
O! Grant the boon!
The pathetic humiliation of having the tusk broken is no shame to Ganapati. He requires that our egoistic horns also should be
broken. That is why the hard shell of a coconut is broken before Ganapati.
The Pot-Belly
The potbelly is a sign of contentment. A beggar or a hungry man cannot settle down to peaceful meditation. Like Ganapati we
should also be content. A maxim of the Chinese contemplative life is “Empty the mind and fill the belly”.
The Rice Ball and the Vedas
Ganapati has a rice ball in his left hand and the Vedas in the right. Some times instead of the Vedas a lotus or the broken tusk or
a jnana-mudra (the gesture of wisdom-teaching) is shown. All these are symbols of wisdom. This is a delicate expression in the
language of dialectics of yoga. With the ball of rice he wants to fill our belly and with the wisdom symbol he wants to nourish our
soul. All good things of this world come under the category called preyas. The rice ball represents preyas. The Vedas, the lotus or
the jnana-mudra represents shreyas which includes all spiritual values. A really wise man never gives up one for the other. He ac¬
cepts both. Enjoying a good meal is not against understanding a book of wisdom like the Bhagavad Gita. Each has its respective
place in our life. A woman can plait her hair and put on her best jewels without sacrificing her spiritual virtues. Most of the excess¬
es in the name of spirituality like eating bitter leaves, or fasting to death, and all such mortifications of the body are unnecessary.
This simple but profound lesson was known to all great Gurus. Jesus advised his disciples to give Caesar his dues and to give
God what was God’s.
The Hook with an Ax
In one of his raised upper hands, Ganapati holds a hook which has also the blade of an ax. A determined seeker has to restrain
his thoughts, words and deeds from going astray through dissipating channels. According to the Gita a mind which gets bifurcat¬
ed and is running in different directions seldom reaches truth. A contemplative has to bring his mind again and again back to one
central issue. It is not an easy task. The mahout of the elephant controls the animal with a hook. Similarly, we should also have
the hook of restraint to keep ourselves always on the path of the Absolute (brahmacarya). Like wild creepers which choke the free
growth of a tree, irrational and sentimental ties prevent most of us from being free. It is with the ax of discrimination that we must
chop them down.
The Noose
Ganapati has also a noose in another hand. A noose is a sign of bondage and an obstacle. Another name of Ganapati is Vignesh-
vara the Lord of Obstacles. One who can create an obstacle can also remove it. According to Saivite belief, to which context Ga¬
napati also belongs, all beings are cows. Siva is the cowherd (Pashupati) and all beings are held bound by Him with a noose. He
saves the stray cows from going into the wilderness by pulling the noose of destructive forces or of deliverance. Mind alone binds
the mind. By knowing this we can diligently work out our deliverance.
The mouse with a little rice ball
A mouse for an elephant to ride on! Is it not ridiculous? But herein lies the beauty and dialectical subtlety of the contemplative art¬
ist of the past. In Indian religion humor is not tabooed, particularly in the South. Saint Thayamanyavar addresses Siva as the ‘Mad
One’ Narayana Guru calls Subrahmanya the ‘Beggar’s Son’. But beyond the humorous situation of an elephant riding on a mouse
there is something which is akin to the inexpressible wonder in this dialectical picture which is referred to in the Keno Upanishad
by the mere sound “Ah!” and in the Bhagavad Gita as the wonder with which one speaks of Brahman, the wonder with which one
listens to Brahman.
Among the animals on dry land the elephant is the biggest and the mouse is one of the smallest. Both Ganapati and the mouse
keep a ball of rice in their hands. All beings are thus linked together on the physical plane with food. The first impulse of life is the
eating of food. As soon as the child is born it cries for food. It is the same with a puppy or a newly born calf. Soon after they are
born they suck from the mother’s breast. The greatest wonder of the world is the provision in nature for every living being to get
food and drink to suit its requirements.
In the Taittiriya Upanishad food is first equated to Brahman, the Absolute. Because the first joy of life is the joy of nourishment.
Life itself is nothing but nourishment. Decay is death. The golden thread of food links all forms of life from the highest to the low¬
est. Psychologically viewed, the joy of taking food is as much spiritual or belonging to the Atman as the joy of meditation. It is in
this joy Ganapati and the mouse get related.
The Universal is never seen but in the particular. The ideal never exists but in the actual. Even so the incomprehensible Paramat-
ma is to be perceived in the Jiva. The allegory of the elephant riding on the mouse refers to the all-pervading Almighty God resid¬
ing in the tiny heart of his devotee
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Ganesa — from gana - ’multitude” and Isa = “lord”
Sanskrit
Ganesa — Mil'll
ganesa -
Ganga
Variant spellings
Ganga
ganga
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Ganga — ... the Ganges river; a Goddess; the “one who goes swiftly”
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
ganga -
‘swift-goer the river Ganges (personified and considered as the eldest daughter of Himavat and Mena...; as the wife of Santanu
and mother of BhTshma MBh...; or as one of the wives of Dharma Padma...; there is also a Ganga in the sky [Akasa- or vyoma-g...,
... and one below the earth...; BhagT-ratha is said to have conducted the heavenly Ganga down to the earth
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Ganga. In Hindu mythology, the goddess whose material form is the Ganges River. The Ganges is sacred because the river is
considered to be a goddess who has the power to take away the sins of those who bathe (snana) in her. There are numerous
legends to explain her origin. The best-known is the tale of King Bhagirath, who by his ascetic practice succeeds in bringing the
Ganges down from heaven to earth. Bhagirath is the great-greatg rand son of King Sagar, whose 60,000 sons had been burned
to ash by the sage Kapila’s magic power after they had erroneously accused Kapila of being a thief. Kapila later tells Anshuman,
King Sagar’s grandson and sole surviving descendant, that the only way to bring peace to the souls of Sagar’s sons is to bring the
Ganges down from heaven to earth. Anshuman strives unsuccessfully to do this, as does his son Dilip after him. Dilip’s son Bh¬
agirath takes their efforts to heart and retires to the Himalayas, where he performs asceticism until the gods finally agree to send
the Ganges down to earth. Yet Bhagiratha’s efforts are not yet over. Next, he has to gain the favor of the god Shiva, so that Shiva
will agree to take the shock of the falling river on his head. Otherwise, its force will destroy the earth. When all is finally in place,
the Ganges falls to earth onto the head of Shiva. Bhagirath leads Ganga out of the mountains to the sea, where she touches his
ancestors’ ashes and they finally find peace. This myth highlights both the salvific touch of the Ganga and her intimate association
with the last rites (antyeshthi samskara) for the dead.
According to another story, the Ganges comes down to earth because of a curse pronounced during a family quarrel between
Vishnu and his wives Ganga, Lakshmi, and Saraswati. When one day Ganga and Vishnu begin exchanging lustful glances in pub¬
lic, Saraswati gets angry and begins to beat Ganga. As Lakshmi tries to stop her, Saraswati let loose a string of curses: that Vish¬
nu will be born as a stone (the shalagram), that Lakshmi will be born as a plant (the tulsi plant), and that Ganga will be born as a
river and take the sins of the world on her. In the struggle, Saraswati is cursed to become a river. Vishnu sweetens Ganga’s curse
by telling her that she will be considered very holy on earth and have the power to remove people’s sins. Vishnu also tells her that
she will fall from heaven onto the head of the god Shiva and become his consort.
Descriptions
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
The Ganges or Ganga is India’s most sacred river. It is 1,557 miles long and sweeps a valley or basin 200 to 400 miles wide. Its
scientific source is in glaciers on the southern slopes of the HIMALAYAS, some 10,300 feet above sea level, but its traditional
source is the glacial site Gangotri. Its major flow begins where the Alaknand and Bhagirathi rivers meet at a site called Devpray-
ag. It is joined by the YAMUNA River at ALLAHABAD (known traditionally as Prayag) in Uttar Pradesh and then flows eastward
through Bihar, traversing the holy city of BENARES (Varanasi), the city of Patna, and Calcutta (Kolkata) before entering the Bay of
Bengal.
Although the Ganges has long been the most sacred of Indian rivers, it is mentioned unambiguously only twice in the RIG VEDA,
the oldest extant Indian text. Its prominent mention and sacred status are fully established only in the PURANAS, Indian texts of
mythology. There the river is said to have descended from heaven, taken down to Earth by the prayers of the sage Bhagiratha to
sanctify the ashes of the sons of his progenitor Sagara. The latter had dug out a huge hole looking for a lost horse, but the Gan¬
ges filled this vast expanse to form the ocean. Descending from Lord VISHNU’s toe, the river might have inundated all the Earth,
had not SHIVA agreed to let it first flow through his topknot. Shiva has since that time been depicted with the Ganges flowing
through his hair.
Ganga is considered a goddess, the eldest daughter of HIMAVAT (the Himalayas). Ganga’s husband is Shantanu; their son
BHISHMA plays an important role in the MAHABHARATA epic, as great uncle of both the warring factions. Ganga’s water is al¬
ways pure and purifying, and pilgrims take flasks and casks home for rituals and blessings. It is every Hindu’s wish to have his or
her ashes thrown into the Ganges after cremation. It is widely believed that such an act confers heaven or liberation on the dead
person. Because of the sacredness of the Ganges and its importance to Hinduism India has made great efforts to try to clean up
this very heavily polluted waterway. Activist movements have for decades agitated for cleaning up this valuable resource.
Encyclopedia of religion
Just as waters that give birth to the earth or nourish nascent life beneath its surface are often female, so also are waters flowing
over the earth’s surface. India is the preeminent land of sacred female watercourses; all of its rivers are goddesses, the first of
them being Ganga Mata (Mother Ganges).
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
The Power of Consciousness is often represented as a Kaliya. Serpent Power. In Yoga, Sakti is called Kundalini, the Serpent
Power. Serpents are associated with the Goddess Kali, as also with Hekate and Hel, and it is not quite accidental that the Serpent
King of the Krishna myth is called Kaliya. This Serpent lived in the river Yamuna, now called the Jumna. In Tantrik symbolism the
Yamuna represents the Pingala or Sun-channel, and the river Ganga or Ganges represents the Ida or Moon-channel. These two
“channels” are found, as we have seen before, at either side of the Sushumna, the central “channel” in the spine. In Yoga these
two “channels” meet at the Ajna Chakra, the Centre of the Moon-Sphere. In geography the two rivers meet at the famous junction
at Allahabad, where periodically “Melas” are held, at which vast numbers of pilgrims assemble to bathe at the sacred junction.
Such a Mela is representative of a “gathering of fragments” on the Return Path, in one context in the Moon-Sphere, where origi¬
nally the “fragments” came into existence, and in another context at the stage of Taurus and Aries, where on the Path of the Fall
the fragmentation or dilaceration entered its period of culmination.
Sanskrit _
Ganga —
ganga -
Grihastha
Variant spellings
grihastha
grhastha
garhasthya
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Grhastha — ... householder
1. The second stage in the Indian social order. (See asrama.)
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
garhasthya -
(sometimes wrongly spelt ...stha) (from grha-stha), fit for or incumbent on a householder MBh.;
the order or estate of a householder, of the father or mother of a family
Descriptions
General
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Grhastha (“householder”) In the dharma literature, which gives instruction on religious practice and duties, a grhastha is a “house¬
holder.” According to the dharma literature, the grhastha is the second of the four stages of life (ashramas) in the life of a man
born into one of the three twice-born groups—brahmin, kshatriya, or vaishya—which have the highest religious and social status
in Indian society. The householder stage is preceded by that of the brahmacharin or celibate student, and succeeded by the va-
naprastha or forest-dweller, and the sanyasi or wandering ascetic. In practical terms, for most men the householder stage is the
final stage of life, since most men do not choose to move beyond it. The householder stage begins with marriage, and leads to
raising and supporting a family. This stage is an active and fruitful time of life, and the householder is indispensable to society
since his labors and resources support those in the other three stages of life. This is also the only stage of life in which sexual
intercourse is not explicitly forbidden, since the general fruitfulness of this stage of life is expressed through procreation. A house¬
holder is permitted to pursue three of the traditional aims of life (purushartha): wealth (artha), desire (kama), and religious duty
(dharma). Given the depth and richness of the householder’s life, it is not surprising that many men have little inclination to move
on to the two other stages.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
M.: Everyone can be a devotee. Spiritual fare is common to all and never denied to anyone - be the person old or young, male or
female.
D.: That is exactly what I am anxious to know. I am young and a grihini (housewife). There are duties of grihastha dharma (the
household). Is devotion consistent with such a position?
M.: Certainly. What are you? You are not the body. You are Pure Consciousness. Grihastha dharma and the world are only phe¬
nomena appearing on that Pure Consciousness. It remains unaffected. What prevents you from being your own Self?
D.: Yes I am already aware of the line of teaching of Maharshi. It is the quest for the Self. But my doubt persists if such quest is
compatible with grihastha life.
M.: The Self is always there. It is you. There is nothing but you. Nothing can be apart from you. The question of compatibility or
otherwise does not arise.
See also:
in Ashrama: Sankara. Atmabodha, tr. Nikhilananda
Related words
Ashrama
Brahmacarya
Sannyasa
Vanaprastha
Sanskrit
Grhastha
grhastha -
Gandha
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Gandha — ... smell (see tanmatra).
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
gandha -
smell, odour (nine kinds are enumerated, viz. ista, anista, madhura, katu, nirharin, sarhhata, snigdha, ruksa, vizada MBh. xii, 6848;
a tenth kind is called amla L.);
a fragrant substance, fragrance, scent, perfume (generally used in pi.);
sulphur;
pounded sandal-wood;
a sectarial mark on the forehead (called so in the south of India);
myrrh;
the mere smell of anything, small quantity, little;
connection, relationship;
a neighbour;
pride, arrogance;
Siva MBh.
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Gandha ... the subtle element (tanmatra) of odour.
Descriptions
See: Evolution of prakriti (Sankhya)
Etymology
General
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Gandha ... from gandh, to injure, hurt.
Related words
Prithivi
Tanmatra
Sanskrit
Gandha — Tpy
gandha - *FT£T
Gunas
Variant spellings
guna
guna
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Guna — ... quality; attribute; characteristic; excellence; rope; constituent; subsidiary; mode
1. The three basic qualities of nature, which determine the inherent characteristics of all created things. They are sattva—purity,
light, harmony; rajas—activity, passion; and tamas—dullness, inertia, and ignorance.
2. It is either composed of, or constituted of (depending on individual school’s interpretations) the three aspects: sattva, which is
buoyant, light, illuminating, knowledge, and happiness; rajas, which is stimulating, mobile, pain, and action; and tamas, which is
heavy, enveloping, indifferent, and laziness.
3. According to Nyaya, it is that which has substance for its substratum, has no further qualities, and is not the cause of, or con¬
cerned with conjunction or disjunction. There are twenty-four qualities, some being material and others being mental: color (rupa),
taste (rasa), odor (gandha), touch (sparsa), sound (sabda), number (sankhya), measure (parimiti), mutual difference (prthaktva),
connection (samyoga), separation (vibhaga), perception of long time (paratva), perception of short time (aparatva), heaviness (gu-
rutva), fluidity (dravatva), viscidity (sneha), knowledge (buddhi), happiness (sukha), sorrow (duhkha), will (iccha), hatred (dvesa),
effort (yatna), latent tendencies (samskara, which is of three types: vega, sthiti-sthapaka, and bhavana), righteousness (dharma),
and unrighteousness (adharma).
4. According to Dvaita Vedanta, it is the first product of primordial Nature (prakrti). It always resides in a substance. There are
infinite number of qualities, mental as well as physical. Insentient entities have physical qualities while sentient beings have both
physical and mental qualities.
5. According to Advaita Vedanta and Visistadvaita Vedanta, it is an attribute of prakrti and is threefold. However, the two schools
differ as to the ontological status of the gunas.
6. According to Sankhya, gunas, being the three constituents of prakrti (composed on sattva, rajas, and tamas), are like a rope in
that they bind the individual and they are subsidiary in that they provide enjoyment for the individuals and also serve to liberate
them. They are the subtle substances or cosmic constituents which evolve into all the various categories of existence.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
guna -
a single thread or strand of a cord or twine ..., string or thread, rope;
a garland;
a bow-string;
(in geom.) a sinew;
the string of a musical instrument, chord ... with numerals ' fold, times ‘ (see catur-, tri-, dasa-, dvi-, panca-);
a multiplier, co-efficient (in alg.);
subdivision, species, kind (e.g. gandhasya gunah, the different kinds of smell);
the 6 subdivisions of action for a king in foreign politics (viz. peace, war, march, halt, stratagem, and recourse to the protection of
a mightier king) Mn.;
‘requisite’;
a secondary element, subordinate or unessential part of any action;
an auxiliary act;
a secondary dish (opposed to anna i.e. rice or the chief dish), side-dish;
the secondary or less immediate object of an action;
a quality, peculiarity, attribute or property;
an attribute of the 5 elements (each of which has its own peculiar quality or qualities as well as organ of sense; thus 1. ether has
sabda, or sound for its guna and the ear for its organ; 2. the air has tangibility and sound for its gunas and the skin for its organ; 3.
fire or light has shape or colour, tangibility, and sound for its gunas, and the eye for its organs; 4. water has flavour, shape, tangi¬
bility, and sound for its gunas, and the tongue for its organ; 5. earth has the preceding gunas, with the addition of its own peculiar
guna of smell, and the nose for its organ);
(in Sarhkhya phil.) an ingredient or constituent of Prakriti, chief quality of all existing beings (viz. sattva, rajas, and tamas i.e. good¬
ness, passion, and darkness, or virtue, foulness, and ignorance;
a property or characteristic of all created things (in Nyaya phil. twenty-four gunas are enumerated, viz. 1. rGpa, shape, colour; 2.
rasa, savour; 3. gandha, odour; 4. sparsa, tangibility; 5. sarhkhya, number; 6. parimana, dimension; 7. prthaktva, severalty; 8.
sarhyoga, conjunction; 9. vibhaga, disjunction; 10. paratva, remoteness; 11. aparatva, proximity; 12. gurutva, weight; 13. dravatva,
fluidity; 14. sneha, viscidity; 15. sabda, sound; 16. buddhi or jnana, understanding or knowledge; 17. sukha, pleasure; 18. duhkha,
pain; 19. iccha, desire; 20. dvesa, aversion; 21. prayatna, effort; 22. dharma, merit or virtue; 23. adharma, demerit; 24. sarhskara,
the self-reproductive quality);
an epithet;
good quality, virtue, merit, excellence;
the merit of composition (consistency, elegance of expression, &c.);
the peculiar properties of the letters (11 in number, viz. the 8 bahya-prayatnas ... and the 3 accents);
the first gradation of a vowel, the vowels a (with ar, al ...), e, o;
an organ of sense;
a cook
Wikipedia
Guna means ‘string’ or ‘a single thread or strand of a cord or twine’. In more abstract uses, it may mean ‘a subdivision, species,
kind, quality’, or an operational principle or tendency.
[In Samkhya philosophy], there are three major gunas that serve as the fundamental operating principles or ‘tendencies’ of prakrti
(universal nature) which are called: sattva guna, and rajas guna, tamas guna. The three primary gunas are generally accepted to
be associated with creation (satva), preservation (rajas), and destruction (tamas). The entire creation and its process of evolution
is carried out by these three major gunas.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Meditations on the self
Gunas - The creative dynamics of Nature, having three constituent modalities, sattva, rajas and tamas, which operate in rotation.
Sattva, like a pure monad, mirrors all items of perception with dependable accuracy, and illuminates conceivable ideas with cor¬
rect logical precision. It has the quality of transparency, and under its influence the mind remains calm. Rajas causes agitation and
emotional turbulence. It distorts and exaggerates the meaning and significance of percepts and concepts. Under its influence the
mind becomes self-centered and conceited. Tamas is the inertial aspect of nature. It is opaque and veils consciousness from the
reality of the Self. Under its influence the mind becomes negative and dark.
Descriptions
General
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Guna (“quality”). A fundamental concept that originated in the Samkhya philosophical school, but has become one of the key ideas
in the Hindu worldview. The word guna literally means “strand,” and by extension a “quality,” of which there are believed to be
three: sattva (“goodness”), rajas (“passion”), and tamas (“darkness”). According to the Samkhyas, in the time before the evolution
of prakrti (primal matter), these three qualities were in perfect equilibrium. As mental activity began to disturb the balance, prakrti
evolved into the subjective self and the objective world. All things and beings in the world have these three basic qualities, but their
nature and tendencies differ according to the differing proportions. The quality sattva is always positive and carries associations
with goodness, truth, wholesomeness, health, cognitive thought, and deep-rooted religious life. The quality tamas is always neg¬
ative and is associated with darkness, ignorance, sloth, spoilage, and death. Rajas can be either positive or negative, depending
on the context. It is negative when one becomes a slave to one’s passions, blinding one to careful and conscious thought. How¬
ever, one’s passions can also help to engender activity and industriousness. Although much of Samkhya metaphysics has been
long discredited, the notion of all things drawing their tendencies from the differing proportion of these three gunas has become an
accepted part of Indian culture.
Wikipedia
In classical Vedic literature
In classical Vedic literature (for example, the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata Purana and the Bhagavad Gita), the gunas are also
associated with the five elements (mahabhutas), five senses, and five associated body parts:
Akash (space), associated with the guna sabda (“sound”) and with the ear.
Vayu (air), associated with the guna sparsa (“feeling”) and with the skin.
Tejas or Agni (fire), associated with the guna rupa (“appearance”, and thus color and tangibility) and with the eye.
Apas or Jal (water), associated with the guna rasa (“taste”, and thus also flavor and tangibility, as well as shape) and with the
tongue.
Prithivi (earth), associated with all the preceding gunas as well as the guna gandha (“smell”) and with the nose.
In Sankhya philosophy
In Samkhya philosophy, a guna is one of three “tendencies”: tamas, sattva, and rajas. These categories have become a common
means of categorizing behavior and natural phenomena in Hindu philosophy, and also in Ayurvedic medicine, as a system to
assess conditions and diets. For this reason Triguna and tridosha are considered to be related in the traditions of Ayurveda. Guna
is the tendency not action itself. For instance, sattva guna is the tendency towards purity but is not purity itself. Similarly rajas guna
is that force which tends to create action but is not action itself. Each of the three gunas is ever present simultaneously in every
particle of creation but the variations in equilibrium manifest all the variety in creation including matter, mind, body and spirit.
All creation is made up by a balance composed of all three forces. For creation to progress, each new stage “needs a force to
maintain it and another force to develop it into a new stage. The force that develops the process in a new stage is sato guna, while
tamo guna is that which checks or retards the process in order to maintain the state already produced, so that it may form the ba¬
sis for the next stage”.
Sattva (originally “being, existence, entity”) has been translated to mean balance, order, or purity. Indologist Georg Feuerstein
translates sattva as “lucidity”. This typically implies that aspects of creation with more of sattva have uplifting and life supporting
qualities.
Rajas (originally “atmosphere, air, firmament”) is also translated to mean preservation or dynamism. (Rajas is etymologically unre¬
lated to the word raja.)
Tamas (originally “darkness”, “obscurity”) has been translated to mean “too inactive” or “inertia”, negative, lethargic, dull, or slow.
Usually it is associated with darkness, delusion, or ignorance. A tamas quality also can refer to anything destructive or entropic. In
his Translation and Commentary on the Bhagavad-Gita, Maharishi Mahesh Yogi explains “The nature of tamo guna is to check or
retard, though it should not be thought that if the movement is upward tamo guna is absent”.
In Nyaya philosophy
In Nyaya philosophy, 24 gunas are enumerated as properties or characteristics of all created things, including sabda, sparsa,
rupa, rasa, and gandha.
rupa: appearance (shape and color).
rasa: taste.
gandha: smell.
sparsa: feeling (touch).
samkhya: amount.
parimana: dimension.
prthaktva: distinctness.
samyoga: conjunction.
vibhaga: disjunction.
paratva: remoteness.
aparatva: proximity.
gurutva: weight.
dravatva: fluidity.
sneha: viscidity.
sabda:sound.
buddhi/jnana: enlightenment/knowing.
sukha: pleasure.
duhkha: pain.
iccha: desire.
dvesa: aversion.
prayatna: effort.
dharma: merit or virtue.
adharma: demerit.
samskara: the self-reproductive quality;
In grammar
In Sanskrit grammatical tradition (Vyakarana), guna is a technical term referring to the vowels a, e, o,(for example, the full grade
ablaut stages.
Ramakrishna tradition
Vivekananda. Jnana Yoga
... according to the Sankhya and it has been admitted by all our sects of philosophy the body is composed of three sorts of gu¬
nas (materials not qualities). It is the general idea that Sattva, Rajas and Tamas are qualities. Not at all, they are not qualities but
materials of this universe, and with ahara suddhi (pure food), the Sattva material becomes pure. The one aim of the Vedanta is
to get this Sattva. As I have told you, the soul is already pure and perfect but, according to the Vedanta, it is covered up by Rajas
and Tamas particles. The Sattva particles are the most luminous, and the effulgence of the soul penetrates through them as easily
as light through glass. So if the Rajas and Tamas particles are eliminated, leaving the Sattva particles uncovered, the powers and
purity of the soul will appear, and make the soul more manifest. Therefore it is necessary to have this Sattva.
Sadananda. Vedantasara, tr. Nikhilananda
... the Sankhya philosophy may justly claim to have fully developed the theory of the three Gunas.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
Talk 497.
In the course of a different conversation. Sri Bhagavan said:
Satva is the light,
Rajas is the subject, and
Tamas is the object.
Even the satva light is only reflected light.
the advice is to keep the mind clear, and when rajas and tamas are wiped off, then the satva mind alone exists. So the T vanishes
in the satva (oonadhal kan).
Gunas, prakriti, maya
Sankara tradition
Sankara. Atmabodha, tr. Nikhilananda
Maya, or Prakrti, is said to consist of the three gunas, known as sattva, rajas, and tamas. The word guna, is usually translated into
English as “quality”, which does not give the precise meaning of the original. Sattva, rajas, and tamas are not qualities of maya
in the same sense that hardness is a quality of iron, or softness of butter, or heat of fire. The three gunas are the ingredients of
maya; they may be compared to three strands which constitute the rope of maya, the rope by which maya binds man to the illuso¬
ry world. Maya has no existence independent of the gunas. The three gunas are present, in varying degrees, in all objects, gross
or subtle, including the mind, the buddhi, and ego. The food which nourishes our body, the thought which is the function of the
mind, the duty which elevates a man from the animal level, charity, worship, sacrifice—in short, everything belonging to the uni¬
verse of maya—contains these three gunas.
At the end of a world cycle, when names and forms go back to the state of non-manifestation or involution, the gunas remain in a
state of non-differentiation or equilibrium. This is called the seed state of the universe; it is described as the sleep of the Cosmic
Soul. Maya, in association with Brahman, or Pure Consciousness, at that time exists as the Cause, alone, without any of its man¬
ifestation. Suddenly this equilibrium is disturbed, by the will of the Lord, and the gunas begin to assert their individual characteris¬
tics. Different objects, subtle and gross, come into existence. The tangible universe manifests itself step by step.
Rajas and tamas have opposing characteristics, while sattva strikes the balance between the two. The principal trait of rajas is
energy, and from it has emanated the “primal flow of activity”. Through its power the phenomenal universe alternates between
evolution and involution, manifestation of names and forms and their recession into the seed state. The visible effect of rajas, in a
human being for instance, is a ceaseless activity through which expression is given to ambition, lust, anger, avarice, arrogance,
egotism, envy, pride, jealousy, and so forth. Under its influence a man becomes violently attached to the world. Rajas is the
source of suffering.
Tamas is the veiling-power that hides the true nature of a thing and makes it appear as other than what it really is. The influence
of tamas is seen, in man, in his ignorance, lassitude, dullness, inadvertence, and stupidity. When tamas predominates over sattva
and rajas, he goes to sleep or remains inactive. It deprives a man of right judgement or definite belief and subjects him to doubt
and uncertainty. After tamas has veiled the true nature of the Self, rajas exerts its projecting-power and creates the many fantasies
that constitute an unenlightened man’s practical life. And alas, even scholars well versed in philosophy cannot escape its hypnotic
spell. It is the mother of delusion.
Sattva is the giver of happiness and is the real friend of man in his effort to realize Truth. It manifests itself, in man. as humility,
guilelessness, self-control, unselfishness, purity, contentment, truthfulness, fearlessness, faith, devotion, yearning for Liberation,
and other similar spiritual attributes. When sattva predominates, a man feels detached with respect to the world, lessens his physi¬
cal activities, intensifies his contemplation, and strives in various ways to attain peace and blessedness. Through the cultivation of
sattva, both rajas and tamas are kept under control.
The three gimas always exist together. There cannot be pure sattva, without rajas and tamas; or pure rajas, without sattva and
tamas; or pure tamas, without sattva and rajas. The difference between one being and another lies in the varying preponderances
of the gunas.
The three gunas, it must not be forgotten, belong to maya, Prakrti or ignorance, which includes everything in Nature—inorganic,
organic, or psychic. They are the characteristics of relativity. As long as a man is attached to any of them he is a phenomenal
being and not a free soul. Even the gods and angels are under the influence of the gunas. The gods or superhuman beings show
a preponderance of sattva; men, of rajas; and sub-human beings of tamas. Brahman, alone untouched by maya, is beyond the
gunas. Sattva binds a man with attachment to happiness, rajas with attachment to activity, and tamas with attachment to delusion.
The three gunas may be compared to three robbers who waylay a man in a forest. Tamas, one of the robbers, wants to destroy
him; but at the persuasion of rajas, the second robber, he is bound hand and foot to a tree and relieved of all his treasures. After
some time sattva, the third robber, returns, frees the man from his bondage, takes him gently out of the forest, and sets him on the
highway leading to his house. Then sattva takes leave of him, because he too, being a robber, does not dare accompany the man
out of the forest for fear of the police. Tamas wants to destroy a man; rajas binds him to the world and robs him of his spiritual
treasures; sattva sets him on the path to Freedom. Tamas is to be overcome by rajas, and rajas by sattva. But finally sattva, too, is
to be given up if the aspirant seeks total Freedom. Truth lies beyond the three gunas.
See also:
Avyakta
Evolution of prakriti (Sankhya)
Maya, avidya, ajnana
in Ahankara: Chinmayananda. Sankara. Vivekachudamani
in Catuspada: Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
Etymology
General
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
The word guna is derived from the Indo-European base gere, “twirl, wind.” Here the term is used to mean a single thread or strand
of a cord, that is, a constituent of Prakrti (Cosmic Substance). The Gunas are as essential to Prakrti as heat is to fire, for one can¬
not exist without the other.
Related words
Maya
Rajas
Sattva
Tamas
Sanskrit
Guna — TjtJT
guna - ^r
Guru
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Guru — ... teacher; preceptor; great; “heavy”; weighty; venerable
1. A spiritual master who has attained oneness with the Self/God and who initiates his or her disciples and devotees into the spiri¬
tual path and guides them to liberation.
2. One who removes the darkness of ignorance. A guru should be both an exemplar and articulator of Reality. Sankara defined a
guru as one who is firmly convinced that he or she is the supreme consciousness; one whose mind is rooted in the highest reality;
one who has a pure and tranquil mind; one who has realized one’s identity with the Absolute (Brahman).
3. There is a tradition which says that a guru gives instruction in the Veda; an acarya initiates one and then gives instruction; an
upadhyaya is a secondary type of teacher in that they give only partial instruction and take fees for it; an adhvanka is an instructor
of knowledge; a pradhyapaka is a seasoned teacher instructing advanced students and other teachers; a pravakta is a generic
word for teacher; and a pracarya is a retired teacher.
4. A sannyasa should know four generations of his preceptors: guru, parama guru, paramesti guru, and parapara guru.
5. In Hinduism, the true guru is God — “guru-deva.”
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
guru -
heavy, weighty (opposed to laghu’);
heavy in the stomach (food), difficult to digest;
great, large, extended, long;
(in prosody) long by nature or position (a vowel);
high in degree, vehement, violent, excessive, difficult, hard;
grievous;
important, serious, momentous;
valuable, highly prized;
haughty, proud (speech);
venerable, respectable;
any venerable or respectable person (father, mother, or any relative older than one’s self);
a spiritual parent or preceptor (from whom a youth receives the initiatory Mantra or prayer, who instructs him in the sastras and
conducts the necessary ceremonies up to that of investiture which is performed by the acarya;
the chief of;
‘preceptor of the gods’;
the planet Jupiter;
‘Pandu-teacher Drona;
Prabha-kara (celebrated teacher of the rtiTmarhsa, usually mentioned with Kumarila);
‘venerable ‘, the 9th astrological mansion;
pi. parents and other venerable persons;
a honorific appellation of a preceptor (whose N. is also put in the pi.);
‘venerable woman ‘, a mother;
‘great (with child) ‘, pregnant, a pregnant woman;
the wife of a teacher
Wikipedia
A guru is one who is regarded as having great knowledge, wisdom and authority in a certain area, and who uses it to guide others
(teacher). As a principle for the development of consciousness it leads the creation from unreality to reality, from the darkness of
ignorance to the light of knowledge. In its purest form this principle manifests on earth as a divine incarnation (saint), a person with
supreme knowledge about God and all creation. Other forms of manifestation of this principle also include parents, school teach¬
ers, non-human objects (books) and even one’s own intellectual discipline.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Meditations on the self
Guru - Literally, remover of darkness. In a broad sense any teacher, and specifically a spiritual preceptor. The Guru is not an out¬
side factor. As one who reveals the reality of the Self, the Guru is Brahma. As one who preserves and guards the revealed wis¬
dom of the Absolute, the Guru is Vishnu. As one who causes the final dissolution of everything into the undifferentiated beingness
of the Absolute, the Guru is Mahesvara or Siva. The implied anthropomorphism of personifying Awareness as Brahma, Vishnu
and Mahesvara is to be treated as a poetic fancy of the Indian mind. In essence the Guru is the same as the Absolute.
Descriptions
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
The SANSKRIT word guru (“weighty” or “heavy” or “father”) is said to derive from gu (the darkness of ignorance) and ru (driving
away)—thus, “the one who drives away the darkness of ignorance.” The notion of the guru began in VEDIC times; a student would
live with a master for 12 years to acquire the Vedic learning. He treated the guru as his father and served his household as well.
Today, a guru is a person’s spiritual father, who is entitled to special deference, as are his wife and daughter.
The guru is a spiritual guide. Almost all traditions understand that spiritual progress and liberation from birth and rebirth cannot oc¬
cur without the aid of a guru. In many contemporary Indian traditions he is seen to be God himself and is treated as such; thus, his
disciples may often refer to their devotion to the “feet of the guru” or their fealty to the “sandals [paduka]” of the guru. (Touching of
the feet in India is a sign of deep respect.) So important is the guru that every year a holiday, Gurupurnima, is celebrated. It takes
place on the full Moon in the lunar month of Ashadha (June-July). It was dedicated originally to the sage VYASA, who compiled
the VEDAS and the MAHABHARATA, but it is observed by worship or honoring of one’s teachers and gurus.
The SIKH tradition, which was founded by Guru Nanak in the 16th century, honors a line of 10 gurus whose teachings form the
core of the tradition. The teachings were eventually gathered together along with the teachings of certain Indian saints into the
Sikh sacred scripture, the Granth Sahib or Guru Granth. Since then the book has became the true “guru” for the Sikhs, and none
other has been recognized.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Guru (“heavy”). In its most commonly accepted meaning, a guru is a spiritual teacher or religious mentor; in an extended sense
the word can refer to any teacher. The term is often used in the arts, where the relationship between master and disciple is still
a vital part of learning. The relationship between guru and disciple (shishya) is one of the most fundamental and enduring facets
of Hinduism and is the accepted model for the transmission of religious teaching, tradition, and authority. Aside from transmitting
knowledge, the guru-disciple connection also assumes a close and trusting relationship. The guru takes responsibility for the dis¬
ciple’s development, based on an assessment of the disciple’s strengths, inclinations, and capacities, while the disciple faithfully
follows the guru’s direction. The literal meaning of the word guru is “heavy,” indicating the impression they have on the lives of
their students—weighty and marked. As a guiding presence, a guru is considered indispensable for true spiritual attainment. This
is particularly true of secret traditions such as tantra, in which the guru’s transmission of authority gives the disciple the necessary
adhikara or “qualifications” for practice.
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
The heavenly or inner Guru is represented in the world in the form of men who are Gurus to their disciples. Their function is to
enlighten their disciples, till the Guru within their own soul shines forth. The relation of the function of faith and insight in the soul to
the lower functions is that of a Guru to his disciples.
The very conception of “the Guru” is often misunderstood in our time, because Gurus who are truly enlightened and have subject¬
ed the lower functions within themselves, are unfortunately very rare. Nowadays, a Guru is generally supposed to be, and gen¬
erally is, in fact, nothing more than an instructor of philosophy and (what is deemed to be) “Yoga”. There is no harm in this if the
teacher is a man of pure and humble character. But if he has not purified himself of Ahankara, he may do more harm than good
to his follower. There may be serious consequences, if the so-called or self-styled “Guru” is a man who is out for “power”, or who
likes to dabble in secret rites and occult practices that increase egotism. There are also “Gurus” who impose upon others dogmas,
beliefs, actions, and — worst of all — themselves. The law of supply and demand works on all planes. People obtain the type of
leader or master they desire and deserve. For those who have pure spiritual aspirations, the traditional saying, “the Guru appears
when the disciple is ready”, applies.
The other traditional saying, “the Guru is God”, can be understood from the fact that Guru is Zeus-Jupiter-Jehovah, the Enlighten¬
er.
The inner or divine Guru is projected in the outer world on a suitable person — for the purpose of the enlightenment of a disciple.
Enlightenment is evoked in the disciple by the “participation mystique” of Guru and disciple.
It may not be out of place to remark that the emotional and intellectual links between Guru and disciple are secondary and form
only reflections of the spiritual link. The purity of the Guru, that is, the lack of Ahankaric factors in his life, purifies the lives of those
who live with him. The disciple who surrenders and annihilates his Ahankara at the Guru’s feet (to use the traditional expression),
finds insight or enlightenment through the Guru’s grace, which is the Grace of God. It is evident that faith in the Guru is of the high¬
est importance, for it is faith that brings insight into the mystery of life, and the bliss of harmonization.
The Guru or Enlightener is the embodied Word, born from the Voice, representing the Tradition.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
Mr. Evans-Wentz continued another day: “May one have more than one spiritual master?”
M.: Who is a Master? He is the Self after all. According to the stages of the development of the mind the Self manifests as the
Master externally. The famous ancient saint Avadhuta said that he had more than 24 Masters. The Master is one from whom one
learns anything. The Guru may be sometimes inanimate also, as in the case of Avadhuta. God, Guru and the Self are identical.
A spiritual-minded man thinks that God is all-pervading and takes God for his Guru. Later, God brings him in contact with a per¬
sonal Guru and the man recognises him as all in all. Lastly the same man is made by the grace of the Master to feel that his Self is
the Reality and nothing else. Thus he finds that the Self is the Master.
D.: When loyal to one Master can you respect others?
M.: Guru is only one. He is not physical. So long as there is weakness the support of strength is needed.
D.: J. Krishnamurti says, “No Guru is necessary?”
M.: How did he know it? One can say so after realising but not before.
D.: It is said that the Guru can make his disciple realise the Self by transmitting some of his own power to him? Is it true?
M.: Yes. The Guru does not bring about Self-Realisation. He simply removes the obstacles to it. The Self is always realised.
D.: Is there absolute necessity of a Guru for Self-Realisation?
M.: So long as you seek Self-Realisation the Guru is necessary. Guru is the Self. Take Guru to be the Real Self and your self as
the individual self.
The disappearance of this sense of duality is removal of ignorance. So long as duality persists in you the Guru is necessary. Be¬
cause you identify yourself with the body you think the Guru, too, to be some body. You are not the body, nor is the Guru. You are
the Self and so is the Guru.
This knowledge is gained by what you call Self-Realisation.
D.: How can one know whether a particular individual is competent to be a Guru?
M.: By the peace of mind found in his presence and by the sense of respect you feel for him.
D.: If the Guru happens to turn out incompetent, what will be the fate of the disciple who has implicit faith in him?
M.: Each one according to his merits.
Nagamma. Letters from Sri Ramanasramam
Question: How is one to decide upon a proper Guru? What is the swarupa of a Guru?
Bhagavan: He is the proper Guru to whom your mind is attuned. If you ask, how to decide who is the Guru and what is his swaru¬
pa, he should be endowed with tranquillity, patience, forgiveness and other virtues capable of attracting others, even by a mere
look, like the magnetic stone, and with a feeling of equality towards all — he that has these virtues is the true Guru. If one wants
to know the true Guru swarupa, one must know his own swarupa first. How can one know the true Guru swarupa, if one does not
know one’s own swarupa first? If you want to perceive the true Guru swarupa, you must first learn to look upon the whole universe
as Guru rupam. One must have the Gurubhavam towards all living beings. It is the same with God. You must look upon all objects
as God’s rupa. How can he who does not know his own Self perceive Ishwara rupa or Guru rupa? How can he determine them?
Therefore, first of all know your own real swarupam.
Question: Isn’t a Guru necessary to know even that?
Bhagavan: That is true. The world contains many great men. Look upon him as your Guru with whom your mind gets attuned. The
one in whom you have faith is your Guru.
Dattatreya is the universal Guru, isn’t he? And he has said that the whole world was his Guru. If you look at evil you feel you
should not do it. So he said evil also was his Guru. If you see good, you would wish to do it; so he said that good also was his
Guru; both good and evil, he said, were his Gurus. It seems that he asked a hunter which way he should go, but the latter ignored
his question, as he was intent upon his aim to shoot a bird above. Dattatreya saluted him, saying, ‘You are my Guru! Though kill¬
ing the bird is bad, keeping your aim so steadfast in shooting the arrow as to ignore my query is good, thereby teaching me that I
should keep my mind steadfast and fixed on Ishwara. You are therefore my Guru.’ In the same way he looked upon everything as
his Guru, till in the end he said that his physical body itself was a Guru, as its consciousness does not exist during sleep and the
body that does not exist should therefore not be confused with the soul — dehatmabhavana (the feeling that the body is the soul).
Therefore that too was a Guru for him. While he looked upon the whole world as his Guru, the whole world worshipped him as its
Guru.
Sankara tradition
Sankara. Vivekachudamani Tr. Chatterji
Such a person [who is fit to know the true nature of atman] must approach the guru through whom freedom from bondage is at¬
tainable; one who is wise, well versed in the scriptures, sinless, free from desire, knowing the nature of Brahman.
Ramakrishna tradition
Vivekananda. Jnana Yoga
what is a Guru? Let us go back to the Srutis “He who knows the secret of the Vedas, not book-worms, not grammarians, not pan¬
dits in general, but he who knows the meaning of the Scriptures, he alone is the GURU. ... He who knows the secret of the Srutis,
the sinless, and he who does not want to make money by teaching—he is the Shanta(saint), the Sadhu (Holy one), who comes as
the Spring, which brings the leaves and fruits to various plants but does not ask anything from the plant, for its very nature is to do
good. It does good and that is all. Such is the Guru. “Who has himself crossed this ocean of life, and without any idea of gain to
himself helps others to cross the ocean also, this is the Guru, and mark that none else can be a Guru. As for others: “Themselves
steeped in darkness, but in the pride of their hearts thinking they know everything, do not stop even there, but want to help others,
and, blind leading the blind, both fall into the ditch.”
Guru-sishya relationship
General
Wikipedia
The guru-shishya tradition, lineage, or parampara, denotes a succession of teachers and disciples in traditional Indian culture and
religions such as Hinduism, Sikhism, Jainism and Buddhism. It is the tradition of spiritual relationship and mentoring where teach¬
ings are transmitted from a guru “teacher” (Sanskrit: *J5) to a sisya “disciple” (Sanskrit: 3Tf^r) or chela. Such knowledge, whether
it be Vedic, agamic, architectural, musical or spiritual, is imparted through the developing relationship between the guru and the
disciple. It is considered that this relationship, based on the genuineness of the guru, and the respect, commitment, devotion and
obedience of the student, is the best way for subtle or advanced knowledge to be conveyed. The student eventually masters the
knowledge that the guru embodies.
Historical background
Beginning in the early oral traditions of the Upanishads (c. 2000 BC), the guru-shishya relationship has evolved into a fundamental
component of Hinduism. The term “Upanishad” derives from the Sanskrit words “upa” (near), “ni” (down) and “sad” (to sit) — so it
means “sitting down near” a spiritual teacher to receive instruction. The relationship between Krishna and Arjuna in the Bhagavad
Gita portion of the Mahabharata, and between Rama and Hanuman in the Ramayana are examples. In the Upanishads, gurus and
disciples appear in a variety of settings (a husband answering questions about immortality, a teenage boy being taught by Yama,
the Hindu Religion’s Lord of Death, etc.) Sometimes the sages are women, and the instructions may be sought by kings.
In the Vedas, the knowledge of Brahman (brahmavidya) is communicated from guru to shishya by oral lore.
Common characteristics of the guru-shishya relationship
Within the broad spectrum of the Hindu religion, the guru-shishya relationship can be found in numerous variant forms including
tantra. Some common elements in this relationship include:
The establishment of a teacher/student relationship.
A formal recognition of this relationship, generally in a structured initiation ceremony where the guru accepts the initiate as a
shishya and also accepts responsibility for the spiritual well-being and progress of the new shishya.
Sometimes this initiation process will include the conveying of specific esoteric wisdom and/or meditation techniques.
Gurudakshina, where the shishya gives a gift to the guru as a token of gratitude, often the only monetary or otherwise fee that the
student ever gives. Such tokens can be as simple as a piece of fruit or as serious as a thumb, as in the case of Ekalavya and his
guru Dronacharya.
Parampara and Sampradaya
Traditionally the word used for a succession of teachers and disciples in ancient Indian culture is parampara (parampara). In the
parampara system, knowledge (in any field) is believed to be passed down through successive generations. The Sanskrit word lit¬
erally means “an uninterrupted series or succession”. Sometimes defined as “the passing down of Vedic knowledge”, it is believed
to be always entrusted to the acaryas. An established parampara is often called sampradaya, or school of thought.
Guru-shishya relationship types
Advaita Vedanta requires anyone seeking to study Advaita Vedanta to do so from a guru (teacher). The guru must have the fol¬
lowing qualities (see Mundaka Upanishad 1.2.12):
Srotriya — must be learned in the Vedic scriptures and sampradaya
Brahmanistha — literally meaning “established in Brahman”; must have realised the oneness of Brahman in everything and in
himself.
The seeker must serve the guru and submit his questions with all humility so that doubt may be removed, (see Bhagavad Gita
4.34). According to Advaita, the seeker will be able to attain liberation from the cycle of births and deaths (moksha).
Narayana Guru tradition
Nataraja. The word of the Guru
Traditionally, the aspiring youth arrives at the abode of the Guru who generally lives away from society in a forest hermitage. The
future Sishya is expected to bring a token bundle of firewood as a sign of his willingness to submit to the household discipline
required of him when he enters the Gurukula (the family of the Guru), He proves in this way that he is one who has sacrificed all
for the wisdom that he prizes more than family and friends. He is therefore a true orphan of God or humanity; a stowaway on the
cosmic ship, unwanted by society; a radical idealist by inclination. Even if he is of highly respectable parentage he is expected to
take no pride in his family traditions. He has transcended and left behind that chapter in his life.
So, like a stray animal pleading for adoption, he appears of his own accord at the Guru’s threshold. He is docile, of good manners
and of pleasant mien. He is earnest enough and zealous to pay the utmost price for the wisdom he seeks; willing, if need be, to
give the loyalty of a lifetime. He does not know wisdom in its completion, but he is aware that there is wisdom. He has, as it were,
a foretaste of its value, known in a vague way, and this inkling gives him the impetus, enabling him to take the ultimate step to
discover it with whole-hearted aim, come what may. All this is understood and symbolically implied when he knocks at the Guru’s
door. Thus he is deeply sensitive, but neither timid nor hesitant.
The Brahmacharin of tradition rises before the sun and usually has his morning dip in the nearest river or lake. There is nothing
severe about this in a tropical climate. At early dawn he is ready for service at the Guru’s bedside. Various kinds of service are
exacted from him in keeping with his character as a student. Begging is not taboo provided it is just as much as is needed for ele¬
mentary bodily needs.
Competition with others in this connection is forbidden, as may be seen from the story of Aruni who was reprimanded by the Guru,
as mentioned in the Mahabharata. Extreme tests are sometimes applied until the mutual adoption between the Sishya and the
Guru becomes firmly established. It is an educative process, a drawing out, and, without the essential bi-polar adoption recog¬
nized on both sides, it must fail.
Such in outline was the practice employed traditionally, according to the sources at our disposal. The Sishya was not to question
the authority of the Guru. It is clear also from the stories concerning Milarepa and others equally famous, whether from the Indian
or Tibetan Guru-Sishya literature. The testing period over, and adoption complete, proved by service to the Guru or by other meth¬
ods, all is ready for the instruction, which generally takes but a little time to give. The mantra (sacred syllable or word) is given to
the disciple, the Maha-vakyas (Grand Aphorisms) are bestowed, and the climax of the relationship is reached.
There is glory in being a Guru, but by its own terms there is greater glory in being a Sishya. The willingness, submission, disci¬
pline and extra good breeding implied in the tender strength of the personality of the Brahmacharin is no less a marvel than that of
Guruhood. The Brahmacharin is at the beck and call of the Guru. In the Guru’s presence he never sits or plays pranks, but rises
respectfully when the Guru enters.
In the presence of other elder Gurus he is expected to be modest and only when asked shows off his knowledge. To be request¬
ed to sit in the Guru’s presence is a rare recognition, gained only in the later period of discipleship. The word ‘Upanishad’ which
means ‘to sit beside’ (derived from the Sanskrit root ‘shad’, to sit, and ‘upa’, near by 21) indicates the privileged nature of the Gu¬
ru-Sishya institution. It is an instruction to be given only when ritualistic service and works have been rightly performed or tran¬
scended. After these comes wisdom (jnana) as a distinct chapter.
The understanding between the Guru and Sishya is like that of a knight-errant who takes up the gauntlet. A tacit challenge is in¬
voked. The Guru may want something in the middle of the night. The Sishya is not to be caught napping. When the Guru speaks,
the Sishya is all ears.
As in a well-bred domestic animal, his eyes follow the Guru’s least movements. Subtle exchanges must be taken in good faith and
in the spirit of a chivalric code of honour. Dogged pursuit of truth is demanded. No retrospective glance of regret is permissible to
the strict Brahmacharin. He must gaze ever forwards. The peak has to be conquered, the citadel stormed. Moral courage dare not
flag for even a minute. Ever listening, ever wakeful, ever willing to serve, and cut off from every situation irrelevant to the task in
hand, the student treads the path. Such is the heroic nature of genuine Sishyahood.
All vital relations, such as those between father and son or husband and wife imply the same bipolarity of relationship which is the
secret of contemplative reasoning...
It is in this way that the Guru becomes as important as the sishya (disciple), or vice versa...
It is the Word which stands neutral and silent between the Guru and the Sishya (Master and Disciple). Silence is the normal state
of Guruhood. That normal Guru state has no message to deliver - except that of the silent Word, perhaps. Neither has it any gos¬
pel to spread, nor course of action to recommend on its own initiative. It is free from the sense of agency in the world of activities
or works. These exist in the domain of necessity or restraint and take care of themselves according to natural laws of imperative
urges, causal chains or obligation. Thus the Guru rests in his heart’s cave of tranquillity, locked in the secret of his silence, beyond
all turmoil in the peace that passeth understanding. Someone might approach a Guru with a question. The best answer and the
reply the Guru wants to give is his silence. The indifference on the surface is only seeming. The Guru really intends to honour the
questioner by his silence. Indeed silence is a form of recognition given sometimes to the most intelligent of questioners. For the
well-formulated question, fundamentally sound in its basic premiss, supplies in itself half at least of the desirable question-answer
situation which is a dialectical situation, like a subject seeking an object or predicate...
The question can refer to one specifically possible answer, but the silence is an answer to all possible varieties of questions, even
to those concerning the future. It is the crowning answer of answers, a finalized reply to the endlessness of questioning in an un¬
expected form which is itself paradoxically rhetorical...
What looks like reserve is only the underlining of the most effective method of conveying his meaning, which is incapable of being
given by the methods usual to other kinds of knowledge. The Guru truth implies the negative approach. It is given a priori, and
sounds as if it is ‘dogmatic’ and not reasoned in the modern sense. ... Again and again frustrated in their attempts to transmit their
deepest affections, the Gurus often subside into the most intensely expressive of silences. Such loneliness - such an ‘orphanage
in God’ - might be called their everlasting agony, crucifixion, or state of detached Nirvana - so great is the hunger of the Guru for a
true disciple.
In ‘the flight of the Alone to the Alone’, which constitutes the Guru-state, the sympathetic call arises for winging another into the
joy of this Samadhi. This constitutes the ‘sad’ element, for this Advaita consciousness seeks expression, final consummation and
fulfilment - and that can be only by transmission somehow to the right kind of disciple.
Without Sishyahood, which is the counterpart of Guruhood, the latter would be meaningless. As a king cannot be without subjects;
so no Guru can be without the typical ‘purvapakshin’ (the doubter, the one who is sceptical, who has the point of view which is
anterior to finalized wisdom, the persistent critic found in all the texts of the Word-wisdom)...
The bipolar Guru-Sishya relationship requires not only a genuine Brahman-knowing Guru, but also an enthusiastic or earnest dis¬
ciple. Only then can the Word of the Guru be elaborated.
The Guru-Sishya relational technique has to conform minutely to a science of its own, to a code which is at the same time tradi¬
tional - the result of long experience - and dialectically universal. All leakages to other interests have to be blocked and a constant
pressure uniformly maintained until results accrue. The nervous system has to be trained to bear the strain of the psychological
search. On some occasion, suddenly, the votary may relapse into regret. The soldier has to be removed to a rest-camp. He may
have tried his best, but a freer flight into the alone, into the adventure of the unknown, may be too much for his moral stamina to
sustain.
Guru and Sishya form the two poles of a process of Self-realization that is essentially an axial relationship. The disciple seeking
knowledge - at the cost of his life if need be - touches the foot of the Guru who is established in that high wisdom. In his turn, the
Guru blesses the Sishya and touches him on his forehead in recognition of his aspiration. A mutual appreciation each of the other
then begins, which results in their further spiritual rapprochement. Finally, all distinctions vanish. The Guru is the Sishya and the
Sishya is the Guru.
Sivananda tradition
Chinmayananda. Sankara. Vivekachudamani
8. Therefore, the learned seeker who is striving to gain this freedom within and who has renounced all his desires for pleasures in
the sense-objects, should duly approach a good and generous Master and must live attuned to the true significances of the words
of the Master.
Commentary by Chinmayananda: A seeker in Vedanta ... can gain admission only when he has had a good education, not only
in the market place but also in the great works discussing the theory and meaning of life. Hence the word Vidwan is used here to
indicate a true seeker. When, therefore, a student having had a cursory knowledge of life and its meaning realises the futility of
running after sense-objects, he comes to a certain amount of renunciation of desires and thus he approaches his Master. Sankara
in this verse also lists the special qualifications necessary for a seeker on the spiritual path.
... A Guru must not only be a man of full Realisation and experience but he should be a Mahantam, a large-hearted, sympathetic,
kind person. Without these qualifications of the heart, he will not be able to come down from the high seat of his experience and
mingle with the imperfect seekers who come to him, and fully understand their difficulties on the path. One can be a Guru only if
one has the required magnanimity, intimate personal experience of the Divine and great familiarity with the scriptures.
Even if a seeker discovers such a perfect Master, he will not be able to react favourably in the Master’s presence or even to his
discussions if he has not the necessary mental attitude, denoted by the word samupetya. The manner of approaching a Master is
not merely a prescription for a sapless formality. It specifies, mainly, a mental attitude. If we approach a Master with the objective
of judging him or evaluating his knowledge, certainly we are not going to benefit. There are some who approach a man of wisdom
to make him understand how far they are men of wisdom themselves. This exhibitionism of their laboriously gathered second hand
informations will choke their hearts and they will not be able to gain anything from the Master’s words which rise from his own first
hand experiences. Water flows only from a higher level to a lower level; so too it is with the flow of knowledge. Unless we have the
meekness and the spirit of surrender, knowledge cannot reach us.
The divine attitude of full receptivity is the aroma of a heart which has reverence for and surrender to, faith in and love for, the
Guru. These are, therefore, insisted upon in the Sastras, but they may seem to the modern man as arrangements set up by a
team of social criminals to loot and plunder the credulous public. Such an opinion reflects the level of decadence into which mod¬
ern man has fallen.
Again, even with all the prescribed qualifications if a seeker were to reach the feet of a perfect Master, the transferred knowledge
cannot take root in the student unless he is himself ready to strive along the path. The instructions given here explaining how he
should conduct himself in the presence of the Master are very significant indeed, especially so in our times when we are all labour¬
ing under terrible misunderstandings about this Guru-sishya relationship.
After all, a Master can only explain truths and give sufficient logic to give the seeker intellectual conviction. These ideas are, at
best, prescriptions for certain values of life which cannot yield any benefit unless they are taken up and made a part of the entire
scheme of our evolution. The major part of the work depends upon our own efforts to rehabilitate ourselves. Thus, it is said, the
individual should try to live the deep significances of the precepts of the Master.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
guru — from the verb root gr = “to invoke or to praise”...
6 . The etymological derivation of the word guru is in this verse from the Guru Gita: “The root gu stands for darkness; ru for its re¬
moval. The removal of the darkness of ignorance in the heart is indicated by the word guru.” The meanings of gu and ru can also
be traced to the Panini-sutras gu samvarane and ru himsane, indicating concealment and its annulment.
Wikipedia
Guru is composed of the syllables ‘gu’ and ‘ru’, the former signifying ‘darkness’, and the latter signifying ‘the destroyer of that
[darkness]’, hence a guru is one characterized as someone who dispels spiritual ignorance (darkness), with spiritual illumination
(light) - as per Advaya- Taraka Upanishad (verse 16),
The syllable gu means shadows
The syllable ru, he who disperses them,
Because of the power to disperse darkness
the guru is thus named.
- Advayataraka Upanishad 14—18, verse 5
As a noun the word means the imparter of knowledge (jnana). As an adjective, it means “heavy,” or “weighty,” in the sense of
“heavy with knowledge,” “heavy with spiritual wisdom,” “heavy with spiritual weight,” “heavy with the good qualities of scriptures
and realization,” or “heavy with a wealth of knowledge.” The word has it roots in the Sanskrit gri (“to invoke”, or “to praise”), and
may have a connection to the word gur, meaning “to raise, “to lift up”, or “to make an effort.” Barnhart’s “Dictionary of Etymology”
compares gravis (Latin: grave, weighty, serious) as cognate with the Sanskrit “guru.”
A traditional etymology of the term “guru” is based on the interplay between darkness and light. The Guru is seen as the one who
“dispels the darkness of ignorance.” In some texts it is described that the syllables gu (*j) and ru ( 5 ) stand for darkness and light,
respectively.
Reender Kranenborg disagrees, stating that darkness and light have nothing to do with the word guru. He describes this as a folk
etymology.
Another etymology of the word “guru” found in the Guru Gita, includes gu as “beyond the qualities” and ru as “devoid of form”, stat¬
ing that “He who bestows that nature which transcend the qualities is said to be guru”.[ The meanings of “gu” and “ru” can also be
traced to the Sutras indicating concealment and its annulment.
In Western Esotericism and the Science of Religion, Pierre Riffard makes a distinction between “occult” and “scientific” etymolo¬
gies, citing as an example of the former the etymology of “guru” in which the derivation is presented as gu (“darkness”) and ru (“to
push away”); the latter he exemplifies by “guru” with the meaning of “heavy”.
Related words
Gurukula
Sishya
Sanskrit
Guru — TJ?
guru -
Gurukula
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Gurukula — ... “teacher’s school,” or “teacher’s abode”
1. Traditionally, the gurukula referred to the residence of a spiritual teacher wherein young students came to live and learn.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
gurukula -
the house of a Guru
Wikipedia
A gurukul (Sanskrit guru “teacher” or “master”; kul domain, from kula, “extended family”) is in India a type of school, residential in
nature, with shishyas living in proximity to the guru, often within the same house. In a gurukul, shishyas reside together as equals,
irrespective of their social standing, learn from the guru and help the guru in his day-to-day life, including the carrying out of mun¬
dane chores such as washing clothes, cooking, etc.
Descriptions
General
Wikipedia
The guru-shishya parampara is a hallowed tradition in Hinduism. Other religious groups in India have adapted it into different
forms that fall within their religious ideology and framework such as Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism. Typically, a guru does not
receive fees from a shishyas studying with him. At the end of his studies, a shishya offers the guru dakshina before leaving the
ashram. The gurudakshina is a traditional gesture of acknowledgment, respect and thanks, which may be monetary, but may also
be a special task the teacher wants the student to accomplish.
By the colonial era the gurukul system was almost dead in India excepting in a few remote regions. An exception was Kerala
where the warrior Nair clan and their own military gurukulas called Kalaris.
Recently, several gurukulas have begun, both driven by monetary gain and by a desire to uphold the traditions. Examples of these
new schools are Ananda Marga Gurukula established by Ananda Marga in 1990 at Anandanagar (India) with a network of branch¬
es in scores of countries around the world. It is not a religious school in Hindu tradition but rather a secular academic institution
based on universal spiritual principles. Vivekananda College near Madurai is an NAAC -accredited 'A’ grade autonomous college
that is run under a Gurukula system.
There are many Vedic Gurukulas in modern India which follow ancient tradition. Government of India provides financial and other
help to Vedic teachers who establish such Vedic gurukulas for imparting Vedic education without asking for any fees from the stu¬
dents ; the leading government institution offering such assistance is Sandipani in Ujjain, named after the guru of Krishna, which
also helps Vedic gurukulas in preparing students for examinations held by recognized Sanskrit universities.[citation needed] (An¬
other Fact,April 2008).
In India and other parts of the world, gurukul [4]is becoming synonym for Shree Swaminarayan Gurukul, a socio-spiritual, non prof¬
it organization with over 14 branches and centers, head branch at Gurukul Rajkot.
In Andhra Pradesh, the first attempt of expanding the Gurukul Tradition was made at Shree Swaminarayan Gurukul Hyderabad by
Sadguru Shri Devprasaddasji Swami.
In Mayapur (West Bengal, India) an ISKCON gurukul project, which has been in operation since the 70’s, is rejuvenating the an¬
cient gurukul system and providing students with a system of traditional education and values.
Others examples of Gurukula instituts: [www.arshayoga.org] and [www.jjkgurukulam.org]
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
The word kula comes from the root kul = “to gather or group together” and, thus, refers to any manifestation from the smallest to
the largest (i.e., an abode, house, body, family, school, teachings, lineage, state of being, etc.). The word guru comes from gu =
“remover of darkness” + ru = “bestower of light.” Thus, the gurukula is any place where the darkness of ignorance is removed by
the light of wisdom.
Related words
Guru
Sishya
Sanskrit
Gurukula —
gurukula -
H
Hatha Yoga
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Hatha yoga — ... physical exercises or postures; “sun-moon union”
1. A yogic discipline by which the unitive (samadhi) state is attained by uniting the prana and apana (ingoing and outgoing breath).
Various bodily and mental exercises are practiced for the purpose of purifying the 72,000 nadis and to bring about the even flow of
prana. When the flow of prana is even, the mind becomes still. One then experiences equality consciousness and enters into the
state of samadhi.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
hathayoga -
a kind of forced Yoga or abstract meditation (forcing the mind to withdraw from external objects; treated of in the Hatha-pradTpika
by Svatmarama and performed with much self-torture, such as standing on one leg, holding up the arms, inhaling smoke with the
head inverted
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Hatha yoga is an amalgam of yogic practices that may have emerged separately and were later comcombined. Its origins are ob¬
scure, but it is likely that the system began to develop in the early centuries of the Common Era.
Hatha yoga includes basic practices that can be found in ASHTANGA YOGA, which relies on the YOGA SUTRA of PATANJALI.
It includes different arrays of postures (ASANAS), joined to various TANTRA practices. The term hatha originally meant “violent,”
and it is possible that this style of YOGA originated in certain types of severe yoga that were later softened for protection of the
body.
Some types of hatha yoga include or even focus on KUNDALINI practice. Here the focus of breath control is on the “serpent” or
“Goddess Energy” at the base of the spine, which must be awakened and forced upward to pierce the psychic centers or chakras
that run parallel to the spine. The NADIS, or subtle bodily channels, are used to guide breath into the central spinal channel to
help the raising of the kundalini through the centers. Finally, the kundalini meets SHIVA at a point above the head called SAHAS-
RARA CHAKRA. This meeting provokes absolute enlightenment.
Traditionally, hatha yoga has encompassed a wide range of practices including those of such sects as the NATH YOGIS, who
sought bodily immortality through the ingestion (and transformation) of poisons such as oxides of mercury and practiced a physical
alchemy. Today, in the West, hatha yoga is typically confined to postures and a simple focus on the breath; more advanced practi¬
tioners may begin to focus on the kundalini and the channeling of the breath in the nadis.
Wikipedia
Hatha Yoga, also called Hatha Vidya G^R^i), is a system of Yoga introduced by Yogi Swatmarama, a sage of 15th century In¬
dia, and compiler of the Hatha Yoga Pradipika. In this treatise Swatmarama introduces Hatha Yoga as preparatory stage of physi¬
cal purification that the body practices for higher meditation. The Asanas and Pranayama in Raja Yoga were what the Hindu Yogis
used to physically train their body for long periods of meditation. This practice is called shatkarma.
Hatha yoga follows the same principles as the Raaja Yoga of Patanjali including moral restraint yama and spiritual observances
niyama. Hatha Yoga is what most people in the West associate with the word “Yoga” and is practised for mental and physical
health throughout the West.
Descriptions
General
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
... it is interesting to go through a tradition of Yoga, focussed in the Element Fire. The Gheranda Samhita is a scripture embodying
such a tradition. ... The special variety of Yoga which it embodies is Hatha Yoga. This is the form of Yoga which begins with the
physical body and proceeds stage by stage inwards. It always stresses the substance and form-aspect of the psyche, on one and
all of the planes. ... Like all scriptures of Yoga, the Gheranda Samhita has been misunderstood and manhandled by idolatrous
literalists. So-called, or rather self-styled, “Yogis”, having no eyes to see the symbolic nature of the instructions, have spent years
and even life-times in practising many of the instructions verbatim. Since the mind is a powerful creator, they have had some
success to book in the development of abnormal psychic powers and the admiration of misguided admirers. But they have not at¬
tained the greater powers which the Yogi Gheranda taught. They have been side-tracked and remained far distant from the Goal.
The beginning of the Samhita at once reveals its profundity. “(1) Once Chanda Kapali going to the cottage of Gheranda saluted
him with reverence and devotion. (2) Chanda Kapali said: O Master of Yoga! O best of Yogis! O Lord! I wish now to learn the
Hatha Yoga, which leads to the realization of the essence of truth (Tattva-Jnana). (3) Gheranda replied: Well asked, indeed, O
mighty-armed. I shall tell thee, O child, what thou askest me. Attend to it with diligence. (4) There are no fetters like those of Maya,
there is no strength like that which comes from Yoga, there is no friend higher than Realization (Jnana), and no greater enemy
than Ahankara. (5) As by learning the alphabets one can, through practice, master all the sciences, so by thoroughly practising
first the Hatha Yoga, one acquires the knowledge of the True. (6) On account of good and bad deeds, the bodies of all animated
beings are produced, and the bodies give rise to works (Karma which leads to rebirth) and thus the circle is continued like that of a
Persian wheel. (7) As the Persian wheel in drawing water from a well goes up and down, moved by the bullocks, so the soul pass¬
es through life and death moved by its deeds. (8) Like unto an unbaked earthen pot thrown in water, the body is soon decayed (in
this world). Bake it hard in the fire of Training in order to strengthen it and purify the body.”... The average man is much like an
unbaked pot, which dissolves in the troublous waters of the emotional imaginative plane. The “body”, that is to say, the composite
“body” consisting of the six sheaths in the Six Spheres, should be made strong by the Fire of Tapas, implying systematic spiritual
practices. It has already been remarked that Hatha Yoga stresses the substantial aspect of things. Its very nature is to prevent
“the decaying in Water” and to bring about “the hardening in Fire”. The Hatha Yoga system of the Yogis Matsyendra Nath, Gorakh
Nath, Gheranda, and others, has often been called the “Yoga of hardiness”. It might also very well be called “the Yoga of the back¬
bone”, for that is what it is metaphorically and that is also what is practically its starting point physically.
... After the Introduction quoted above, Gheranda says: “(9) The Seven Exercises which appertain to this Training of the body are
the following: — Purificatory, strengthening, steadying, calming, and those leading to lightness, perception, and isolation.” From
the text to follow it stands out that the purificatory exercises are introductory ones, and that the Six Exercises to follow refer to the
Six Spheres from Earth to the Moon. “(10—11) First: The purification is acquired by the regular performance of six practices (to be
mentioned shortly); Second: Asana (body-posture) gives Dridhata (strength); Third: Mudra (organ-posture) gives Sthirati (steadi¬
ness); Fourth: Pratyahara(mind-discipline) gives Dhairyata (calmness); Fifth: Pranayama (breath-control) gives Laghima (light¬
ness); Sixth: Dhyana (meditation) gives Pratyakshatva (perception) of Self; and Seventh: Samadhi (perfect contemplation and
absorption) gives Nirliptata (detachment, isolation), which is verily Liberation.”
Wikipedia
Hatha Yoga is one of the two branches of Yoga that focuses on the physical culture, the other one being Raja Yoga. Both of these
are commonly referred to as Sadanga Yoga, i.e., Yoga of six parts (‘sad’ meaning six and ‘anga’ meaning limbs). The six limbs are
described below in detail. Svatmarama emphasizes many times in his Hathapradipika text that there is no Raja Yoga without Ha¬
tha Yoga and no Hatha Yoga without Raja Yoga. The main difference is that Raja Yoga uses asanas mainly to get the body ready
for prolonged meditation, and hence focuses more on the meditative asana poses: Lotus Posture (padmasana), Accomplished
Posture (siddhasana), Easy Posture (sukhasana) and Pelvic Posture (vajrasana). Hatha Yoga utilizes not only meditative postures
but also cultural postures. Similarly, Raja Yoga’s use of Pranayama is also devoid of extensive locks (bandha).
The most comprehensive text of Hatha Yoga is the Hatha Yoga Pradipika by Yogi Swatmarama. This work is nonetheless derived
from older Sanskrit texts on Yoga besides Yogi Swatmarama’s own yogic experiences. It includes information about shatkarma
(purification), asana (postures), pranayama (subtle energy control), chakras (centers of energy), kundalini (instinct), bandhas
(muscle force), kriyas (techniques; manifestations of kundalini), shakti (sacred force), nadis (channels), and mudras (symbolic
gestures) among other topics.
Traditionally, Lord Shiva (3 ikP1i«t) is credited with propounding Hatha Yoga. It is said that on a lonely island, assuming nobody
else would hear him, he gave the knowledge of Hatha Yoga to Goddess Parvati, but a fish heard the entire discourse, remain¬
ing still throughout. Lord Shiva took mercy on the fish (Matsya) and made him a siddha, who came to be known as Matsyendra-
naatha. Matsyendranaatha taught Hatha Yoga to Chaurangi, a limbless man who was given hands and feet by Matsyendranaatha
just by looking at him. Hatha Yoga Pradipika mentions Adinaatha, Matsyendranaatha, Gorakhanaatah and many other yogis who
became famous Hatha Yogis.
Many modern schools of Hatha Yoga derive from the school of Sri Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, who taught from 1924 until his
death in 1989. Among his students prominent in popularizing Yoga in the West were Sri K. Pattabhi Jois, famous for popularizing
the vigorous Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga style, B.K.S. Iyengar who emphasizes alignment and the use of props, Indra Devi and Krish-
namacharya’s son T.K.V. Desikachar who developed the Viniyoga style. Desikachar founded the Krishnamacharya Yoga Mandi-
ram in Chennai, with the aim of making available the heritage of yoga as taught by Krishnamacharya.
Another major stream of influence was Swami Sivananda of Rishikesh (1887- 1963) and his many disciples, including Swami
Vishnu- devananda - founder of International Sivananda Yoga Vedanta Centres, Swami Satyananda - of the Bihar School of
Yoga, and Swami Satchidananda - of Integral Yoga, among others.
Many modern schools of Hatha Yoga derive from the school of Sri Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, who taught from 1924 until his
death in 1989. Among his students prominent in popularizing Yoga in the West were Sri K. Pattabhi Jois, famous for popularizing
the vigorous Ashtanga Vinyasa Yoga style, B.K.S. Iyengar who emphasizes alignment and the use of props, Indra Devi and Krish-
namacharya’s son T.K.V. Desikachar who developed the Viniyoga style. Desikachar founded the Krishnamacharya Yoga Mandi-
ram in Chennai, with the aim of making available the heritage of yoga as taught by Krishnamacharya.
Another major stream of influence was Swami Sivananda of Rishikesh (1887- 1963) and his many disciples, including Swami
Vishnu- devananda - founder of International Sivananda Yoga Vedanta Centres, Swami Satyananda - of the Bihar School of
Yoga, and Swami Satchidananda - of Integral Yoga, among others.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
D.: Is hatha yoga necessary?
M.: It is one of the aids - not that it is always necessary. It depends upon the person. Vichara surpasses pranayama. In Yoga Va-
sishta Chudala advises investigation (vichara) to Sikhidvaja for killing the ego.
Reality can be reached by holding on to prana or intellect. Hatha yoga is the former; Vichara is the latter.
D.: A man sometimes finds that the physical body does not permit steady meditation. Should he practise yoga for training the body
for the purpose?
M.: It is according to one’s samskaras (predispositions). One man will practise hatha yoga for curing his bodily ills; another man
will trust to God to cure them; a third man will use his will-power for it and a fourth man may be totally indifferent to them. But all of
them will persist in meditation. The quest for the Self is the essential factor and all the rest are mere accessories. A man may have
mastered the Vedanta philosophy and yet remain unable to control his thoughts. He may have a predisposition (purva samskara)
which takes him to practise hatha yoga. He will believe that the mind can be controlled only by yoga and so he will practise it.
D.: What is most suitable for gaining facilities for steady dhyana?
M.: It depends on one’s samskara. One may find hatha yoga suitable and another man nama japa, and so on. The essential point
is the atma-vichara - enquiry into the Self.
D.: Is not hatha yoga necessary for the inquiry into the Self?
M.: Each one finds some one method suitable to himself, because of latent tendencies (purva samskara).
D.: Can hatha yoga be accomplished at my age?
M.: Why do you think of all that? Because you think it exterior to yourself you desire it and try for it. But do you not exist all along?
Why do you leave yourself and go after something external?
D.: It is said in Aparoksha-anubhuti that hatha yoga is a necessary
aid for inquiry into the Self.
M.: The hatha yogis claim to keep the body fit so that the enquiry may be effected without obstacles. They also say that life must
be prolonged so that the enquiry may be carried to a successful end. Furthermore there are those who use some medicines (kay-
akalpa) with that end in view. Their favourite example is: the screen must be perfect before the painting is begun. Yes, but which is
the screen and which the painting? According to them the body is the screen and the inquiry into the Self is the painting. But is not
the body itself a picture on the screen, the Self?
D.: But hatha yoga is so much spoken of as an aid.
M.: Yes. Even great pandits well versed in the Vedanta continue the practice of it. Otherwise their minds will not subside. So you
may say it is useful for those who cannot otherwise still the mind.
Yoga and jnana
General
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
The Path of Jnana begins with and starts from Consciousness and Reality. The Path of Yoga, on the other hand, begins with man
as he is found in his stage of ignorance and decay in the world, and lifts him up, stage by stage, by means of methodical self-dis¬
cipline and spiritual practice. If Jnana begins “at the top”, Yoga begins “at the bottom”. As is clear, in actual life there can be no
Jnana without some Yoga and no Yoga without some Jnana. Since life consists of cyclic recapitulations, an aspirant on the Path
of Jnana is bound to recapitulate, often without his conscious intention, stages of Yoga. Similarly an aspirant on the Path of Yoga
is bound to receive inspiration from previous contacts made with Jnana. Jnana is oriented on Siva, Static Divinity, and Yoga is
oriented on Sakti, Dynamic Divinity, Energy, Power, Creative Activity, which takes for the Yogis the form of Kundalini, the Serpent
Fire. But both traditions teach that Siva and Sakti are at heart One. Where they appear to be two by the power of Maya, the aim of
the Sadhaka or spiritual striver should be to re-unite them into One within his soul and in his life. Both traditions teach this in their
own terms.
Etymology
General
Dictionary - Grimes
hatha yoga — from the verb root hath = “to oppress”
Wikipedia
Hatha Yoga, pronounced ['hefe] in Hindi, is also known as hatha vidya or the “science of hatha” yoga. The word Hatha comes
from combining the two Sanskrit terms “ha” meaning sun and “tha” meaning moon, referring to Praana and Apaana. The word “ha”
refers to the solar nadi (pingala) in the subtle body and “tha” the lunar channel (ida). However, when the two components of the
word are placed together, “hatha” means “forceful”, implying that powerful work must be done to purify the body. Yoga means to
yoke, or to join two things together, hence hatha yoga is meant to join together sun (masculine, active) energy with the moon (fem¬
inine, receptive) energy, thus producing balance and greater power in an individual.
Related words
Yoga
Sanskrit
Hatha yoga —
hathayoga - ^TTFt
Hindu philosophy
Descriptions
Summary
General
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
All systems of Hindu Philosophy are in complete agreement that the purpose of philosophy is the extinction of sorrow and suffer¬
ing and that the method is by the acquisition of knowledge of the true nature of things which aims to free man from the bondage of
ignorance which all teachers agree is the cause of human suffering.
Hindu Philosophy does not attempt to train one to discern metaphysical truths; it offers a way of thinking which enables one ratio¬
nally to understand the reality experienced by self-fulfilled personalities, and thereby to lead one to the realization of Truth. In this
light, philosophy is seen as an art of life and not a theory about the universe, for it is the means of attaining the highest aspirations
of man. It is not for the discovery, but for the understanding of Truth.
Chakravarti. Lectures on Hindu Religion
The Hindu philosophy ... is a part of the Hindu religion.
Systems of Hindu philosophy
Classic systems of Hindu philosophy
Sankhya
Yoga
Nyaya
General
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Nyaya was founded by Gotama. It is purely a system of logic, concerned with the means of acquiring right knowledge which it
classifies under sixteen topics.
Vaisesika
General
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
Vaisesika was founded by Kanada. It classifies all knowledge of the objective world under nine realities and discusses how the
various combinations of these nine basic realities bring all things into being.
Mimansa
Vedanta
Comments on the systems
General
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
According to Indian tradition there is only one Ultimate Reality, but there are six fundamental interpretations of that Reality. These
are called the Sad Darsanas or “six insights”. ... Together they form a graduated interpretation of the Ultimate Reality, so interre¬
lated that the hypothesis and method of each is dependent upon the other. In no way are they contradictory or antagonistic to one
another, for they all lead to the same practical end, knowledge of the Absolute and Liberation of the Soul.
Wikipedia
In Hindu history, the distinction of these six schools was current in the Gupta period “golden age” of Hinduism. With the disap¬
pearance of Vaiseshika and Mimamsa, it was obsolete by the later Middle Ages, when the various sub-schools of Vedanta (Dvaita
“dualism”, Advaita “non-dualism” and others) began to rise to prominence as the main divisions of religious philosophy. Nyaya
survived into the 17th century as Navya Nyaya “Neo-Nyaya”, while Sankhya gradually lost its status as an independent school, its
tenets absorbed into Yoga and Vedanta.
Other classifications
General
Encyclopedia of philosophy
The Hindu systems are here distinguished into six groups: (1) Samkhya and Yoga, which share a common metaphysics; (2)
Nyaya and Vaisesika, which share an ontology; (3) “Mimamsa,” more properly “Purvamimamsa,” whose members share a com¬
mon approach to the interpretation of the authority of the Vedas, which they view mainly as a source of prescriptions about be¬
havior; (4) “Vedanta,"which treats the “closing sections of the Vedas” (vedanta)—the Upanishads—as authoritative; (5) a group
of philosophical systems whose common ground is that their proponents are worshipers of Siva; and (6) the Grammarians (vaiya-
karana), who view the study of language as providing the key to liberation. Many of these approaches claim ancient authority for
their standpoints.
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
For the purpose of study, the six Darsanas have been classified into three divisions:
Nyaya -- Vaisesika
Samkhya -- Yoga
Mimamsa - Vedanta
The first division lays down the methodology of science and elaborates the concepts of physics and chemistry to show how man¬
ifestation of phenomena comes into being; the second division sets forth an account of cosmic evolution on purely logical princi¬
ples; and the third division critically analyses the basic principles, developing them in greater detail and furnishing arguments to
substantiate, as well as making incidental contributions on points of special interest.
Astika ("orthodox") darsanas
General
Wikipedia
Hindu philosophy is divided into six astika (“orthodox”) schools of thought, or darshanas (literally, “views”), which accept the Vedas
as supreme revealed scriptures. The other three nastika (“heterodox”) schools, which do not accept the Vedas as supreme do not
form part of Hindu philosophy. The astika schools are:
- Sankhya, a strongly dualist theoretical exposition of mind and matter.
- Yoga, a school emphasizing meditation closely based on Sankhya
- Nyaya or logics
- Vaisheshika, an empiricist school of atomism
- Mimamsa, an anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school of orthopraxy.
- Vedanta, opposing Vedic ritualism in favour of mysticism. Vedanta came to be the dominant current of Hinduism in the post- me¬
dieval period.
Nastika ("heterodox") darsanas
General
Wikipedia
The nastika schools are:
- Buddhism
- Jainism
- Carvaka, a skeptical materialist school, which died out in the 15th century and whose primary texts have been lost.
Common assumptions in Hindu philosophy
General
Theos Bernard. Hindu philosophy
To understand correctly Hindu Philosophy, it is paramount that one realize that the basis of all the schools is the same. Together
they form a graduated interpretation of the Ultimate Reality. Each school is based on the same metaphysical doctrine, while dis¬
cussing some particular aspect of the whole. For example: Nyaya discusses the means by which knowledge may be had of the
Ultimate Reality; Vaisesika, the things to be known about that Ultimate Reality; Samkhya, the evolution of metaphysical doctrine;
Yoga, the metaphysical doctrine in relation to the individual; Mimamsa, the rules and method of interpreting the doctrine; Vedanta,
the relationship between God, Matter, and the world.
... They have many characteristics in common. They all grew out of the Upanisads, the philosophical portion of the Veda which is
accepted as the supreme authority; they are delivered in the Sutra style, that is as aphorisms; as such, they are extremely con¬
cise, avoiding all unnecessary repetition and employing a rigid economy of words, making it difficult to understand them correctly
in their original form without the use of commentaries, for they use many of the same terms, but each system gives its own mean¬
ing to the use of the term. They rest their conclusions on several common concepts: all accept the eternal cycle of Nature which
is without beginning and end, and which consists of vast periods of creation, maintenance, and dissolution; all accept the principle
of regeneration of the soul that maintains that life and death are but two phases of a single cycle to which the soul is bound and to
which it clings because of ignorance of the true nature of things; all accept Dharma as the moral law of the universe that accounts
for these eternal cycles of Nature, as well as the destiny of the human soul; all agree that knowledge is the path to freedom and
that Yoga is the method to attain final liberation.
Srinivasa. Outlines of Indian philosophy
It was in ancient Greece and Rome so it is in modern Europe and America ; various schools of Philosophy are being propound¬
ed, each challenging every fundamental principle of the rest, Not so in India, where though the different Darsanas disagree about
important questions, the ideas common to all these systems are so many and so vital that these deserve to be formulated by
themselves under the name of Hindu Philosophy. These ideas are as a rule assumed and not definitely expounded in the literature
of the different schools; each school being naturally anxious to explain and justify by argument, the special points of doctrine and
discipline which constitute its individuality, and differentiate it from its sister philosophies. These philosophical schools are com¬
monly enumerated as six.
Sadananda. Vedantasara, tr. Ballantyne
Commentary by Ballantyne:
Grand Aim of Hindu Philosophy. As already mentioned, Hindu philosophy arose when a pessimistic view began to be taken of life
when existence was regarded as a curse, and freedom from future births was considered the highest good. All the six systems
agree in this.
... This freedom from future births is called mukti or moksha, liberation. The doctrine is not found in the four Vedas ; it is a later
development.
Related words
Advaita Vedanta
Darshana
Dvaita
Indian philosophy
Vedanta
Visishta-Advaita
Hiranyagarbha
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Hiranyagarbha — ... “golden egg”; gold germ; the cosmic form of the self; cosmic womb; creator of the subtle universe
1. It is the thread self or the subtle vesture. It is the form of all the individuals together or the only individual. (See eka-jiva-vada.)
It is the seed of the universe. It is also known as sutratman. The Rg Veda (X.121) says, “Hiranyagarbha arose in the beginning;
born, he was the one lord of things existing.”
2. A name of God, the Creator (saguna Brahman) as born from a golden egg. This egg was formed from the seed deposited in the
primordial waters by the self- existent Brahman on the eve of creation. The seed took the form of a golden egg, out of which Brah¬
man was born as Brahma, the creator. It also means the soul invested by the subtle body. Various synonyms for this term include
mahat, virat, Isvara, saguna Brahman.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
hiranyagarbha -
a golden fetus;
N. of Brahma (so called as born from a golden egg formed out of the seed deposited in the waters when they were produced as
the first creation of the Self-existent; according to Mn. i, 9, this seed became a golden egg, resplendent as the sun, in which the
Self-existent Brahma was born as Brahma the Creator, who is therefore regarded as a manifestation of the Self-existent;
N. of the author of the hymn Rigveda x, 121;
of a VedAnta teacher;
of various other persons;
of Vishnu;
of a flamingo;
(in phil.) the soul invested with the sGkshma-sarTra or subtle body (= sGtratman, pranatman) Vedantas;
N. of a river;
N. of a Linga;
relating to Hiranya-garbha or Brahma
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Hiranyagarbha ... is the Golden Embryo, Golden Egg, or Golden Womb identified in the Rig Veda (X.121) as the cause of the uni¬
verse. Paradoxically, it has both a masculine and a feminine aspect. It is referred to as “he,” but it is also the “womb” of manifest
reality.
From the beginning the term hiranyagarbha has had multivalent and sometimes contradictory meanings. In Rig Veda X.82 it is
the cosmic egg that separates into two hemispheres, in the beginning of the world, its upper portion forming the sky and its yolk
becoming the Sun. This vision is elaborated in the PURANAS, where other elements of the egg make up elements of the manifest
universe: the water in the cosmic egg, for instance, becomes the ocean.
Various Hindu traditions have offered various and quite different understandings of this ancient image, even within the same
tradition. Influenced by SAMKHYA concepts, some say that the PURUSHA (the transcendent divine) with the cooperation of
PRAKRITI (nature) made the cosmic egg from which the world emerges. In one context BRAHMA, the creator, emerged from the
egg to create the universe. In other contexts, however, Brahma is himself the hiranyagarbha; the word can be used as an epithet
or alternate name of Brahma.
In Shaivite ... contexts hiranyagarbha is seen as a creation of SHIVA that embodies aspects of him. From hiranyagarbha, in turn,
Brahma or the universe can emerge. In Vaishnavite ... mythology, VISHNU inspires or creates the hiranyagarbha, from which the
universe derives. In the VEDANTA of SHANKARA the term takes on various meanings depending on the lineage and tradition
expounding upon it. In this tradition it is often associated with a state of consciousness rather than an entity per se. For example,
in Shankara’s own commentaries hiranyagarbha is considered synonymous with the manifest universe, which is the product of
MAYA.
Illustrated-Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Golden Embryo One of the earliest cosmological myths. It first appears in the Rg Veda (10.121), the oldest Hindu religious text.
According to this account, the universe originally consisted of the Golden Embryo (Hiranyagarbha). The Golden Embryo stirred
and evolved into Prajapati, the creator of all things and ruler over all creatures. In this story, as with most other accounts of Hindu
cosmology, the cosmos originates from a single source and is thus an organic whole.
Wikipedia
Hiranyagarbha (... literally the ‘golden womb’ or ‘golden egg’, poetically rendered ‘universal germ’) is the source of the creation
of the Universe or the manifested cosmos in Indian philosophy, it finds mention in one hymn of the Rigveda (RV 10.121), known
as the ‘Hiranyagarbha sukta’ and presents an important glimpse of the emerging monism, or even monotheism, in the later Vedic
period, along with the Nasadiya sukta suggesting a single creator deity predating all other gods (verse 8: yo devesv adhi deva eka
aslt, Griffith: “He is the God of gods, and none beside him.”), in the hymn identified as Prajapati.
The Upanishads calls it the Soul of the Universe or Brahman, and elaborates that Hiranyagarbha floated around in emptiness and
the darkness of the non-existence for about a year, and then broke into two halves which formed the Swarga and the Prithvi.
In classical Puranic Hinduism, Hiranyagarbha is a name of Brahma, so called because he was born from a golden egg (Manusmrti
1.9), while the Mahabharata calls it the Manifest.
Sankara tradition
Sankara. Atmabodha, tr. Nikhilananda
Commentary by Nikilananda:
Hiranyagarbha, or th Golden Egg, is the first manifestation of Brahman, in which the future living beings remain in seed form.
Descriptions
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. Brhadaranyaka Upanisad
... the symbol of the most superactive principle of generation with which the world commences. It is called hiranyagarbha. Htranya
is the golden hue which symbolizes the delight that accompanies hope. Before the sun appears, the eastern sky gets a crimson
hue. That indicates that the oriental sky is already pregnant with the golden sun.
... The best example of hiranyagarbha is the legendary golden egg. The egg has within it a thesis and an antithesis. The thesis
is the enveloping mass of the yolk that is seen in an egg. The antithesis is the sperm which sits as a nucleus in the center of the
yolk. It is hard to say whether the yolk is primeval or the nucleus is primeval. In all dialectical counterparts the polarized opposites
have a simultaneity in their origin and a binary interaction between diem. In the case of an egg which has the program to hatch, it
has the nucleus which is quantitatively far less than that of the yolk. And yet, the nucleus which is unicellular increases its hunger
and the hunger is its dynamic to eat or absorb into it more and more of the yolk. Thus, qualitatively, the nucleus is superior to the
voluminous yolk and the consequential synthesis changes the nucleus into a growing chicken whose enjoyment of Its feeding is
continuously promulgated by its hunger. Ultimately the shell cannot contain the nucleus any longer. The shell breaks. The whole
process of generation is one of the solitary act of self-beneficience.
Prasad. Three Acharyas and Narayana Guru tradition
Hiranya-garbha : Literally;”golden germ”, “golden embryo”. The Absolute treated as the seed of the universe. Also known as
sutratman (the thread-self). The creator imagined to be born from a golden egg. Various synonyms for this term include mahat,
virat purusa, Isvara, saguna-Brahman.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
Holding the mind and investigating it is advised for a beginner. But what is mind after all? It is a projection of the Self. See for
whom it appears and from where it rises. The ‘l-thought’ will be found to be the root-cause. Go deeper; the ‘l-thought’ disappears
and there is an infinitely expanded ‘l-consciousness’. That is otherwise called Hiranyagarbha. When it puts on limitations it ap¬
pears as individuals.
Sankara tradition
Nikhilananda. Mandukya Upanishad
Commentary by Nikilananda:
... a deity known as Hiranyagarbha (The Golden Germ) who is the first of all the evolved effects and from whom, as the matrix, the
whole evolution proceeds. It is described in the Vedantic texts as the summation of all subtle bodies.
Sadananda. Vedantasara, tr. Ballantyne
“Hiranyagarbha, the spirit of dreaming sentiencies. The next emanation in the order of descent is Hiranyagarbha, Prana, the
Threadspirit. This divine emanation is the totality of migrating souls in the state of dreaming sleep, the sum of the dreaming con¬
sciousness of the world. His body is the sum of the invisible bodies, the tenuous involucra ( wrappers, sheaths) clothed in which
the soul passes from body to body in the long process of metempsychosis. These invisible bodies are made up of three vestures
one upon the other, the cognitional, the sensorial, and the aerial garments of soul. These three wrappers clothe Hiranyagarbha
(the embryo of light.) He is called Sutratma, the Thread-spirit, as stringing together all dreaming souls clothed in the invisible bod¬
ies that accompany them in their migrations, as pearls are strung upon a thread to form a necklace.
Vedantaparibhasa. Dharmaraja
37. What is called Hiranyagarbha is the first jiva, other than the three mGrti-s (Brahma, Visnu and Rudra) ; for there are such sruti
texts as ‘He verily is the first embodied one; he verily is called pnrusa; the first creator of [all] beings, Brahma, existed at first’, ‘Hi¬
ranyagarbha existed at first’ (Rv.,X.121.1), etc.
Sivananda tradition
Krishnananda. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
The Cosmic Mind, Hiranyagarbha, as we call it in the Vedanta, is the Cosmic ‘l-Am’. It is Self-Consciousness, Pure Universality.
And, here is the seed of all diversity.
See: Brahman, Ishvara, Hiranyagarbha, Virat
Hiranyagarbha and Virat
Sivananda tradition
Krishnananda. Commentary on the Bhagavadgita
In the state of Isvara or Hiranyagarbha, there are no subjects and objects, and there is no seeing and seen. The seer-seen context
of difference arises only after the Virat appears as a threefold reality: as adhibhuta which is the visible universe, adhyatma which
is the perceiving consciousness, and an invisible transcendent connecting link which is adhidaiva. Until this takes place, there is a
total, integrated, direct consciousness which is omniscient. That omniscience which is transcendent to both the seer and the seen
aspect of reality is Isvara - though He may be called by any other name.
Krishnananda. Commentary on the Katha Upanishad
Hiranyagarbha, the universal mind or intelligence, is also the support of all the worlds, the cause of all creation. The virat is an
external or physical expression of that internal hiranyagarbha.
See: Taijasa and Hiranyagarba
See also:
Evolution of Prakriti (Sankhya)
Etymology
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Hiranyagarbha (hiranya, gold; garbha, seed, egg, womb, embryo)
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
Hiranyagarbha or “Golden Womb”. ... The Sanskrit “Garbha” means both “womb” and “germ”.
Related words
Ishvara
Mahat
Prajapati
Taijasa
Virat
Sanskrit
Hiranyagarbha —
Hiranyagarbha -
Hita
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Hita — ... means to the end; beneficial; good; salutary
1. Visishtadvaita Vedanta refers to three main aspects of philosophy: tattva (reality), hita (means), and purusartha (goal of life).
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
hita -
put, placed, set, laid, laid upon, imposed, lying or situated or contained in;
set up, established, fixed (as a prize);
planned, arranged (as a race or contest);
prepared, made ready;
beneficial, advantageous, salutary, wholesome, suitable, agreeing with (often, said of diet, regimen, medicines &c.), convenient,
suitable, fit, agreeable to or for;
well-disposed, favourable, friendly, affectionate, kind;
N. of partic. veins or arteries;
anything useful or salutary or suitable or proper, benefit, advantage, profit, service, good, welfare, good advice &c.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
Hita - what you like most, what you like to be or what makes you happy.
Descriptions
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
... the whole of creation is based on paradox. When you are lopsided and see only one side and not the other, you don’t truly un¬
derstand the game. You need to balance yourself at the neutral place where the two meet.
In the right eye is Indra, the master of the senses, and in the left eye is Viraj, the principle of sensation. They divide and then syn¬
chronize in the cavity of the heart. It is exactly like maithuna, the copulation of a man and a woman. They are so completely lost in
each other that there is no separate identity of man or woman. There is no other. There is only the pure joy of oneness, unition. In
that unition is hita, that which you like.
Hita is considered to be a system of nerves as fine as a single hair split into its thousandth part. It is very subtle, but it fills your
whole system, extending in all directions like a spherical radiation of light. It goes to the east, west, north, south, above and be¬
low—in all directions. If you close off all the avenues by which you are distracted and your mind asks “ what next?” you say, “
Nothing next, neti, not this, not this. Never mind.” After a time you come to a stillness everywhere. On all sides you are filled with
that great stillness, that overwhelming, all-pervading stillness. Do not try to give it a name. What operates then is your hita, what
you like most.
The hita is affected by the blood, where the residual karma is said to be located. I was wondering how that could be, and then I
found a reference in McCullough’s Embodiments of Mind to Aristotle, who had before him Hippocratus. They spoke of the same
thing. From their time to 1921 it was believed that you think with your blood.
And how does it work? What you are and what you are going to be are always in your blood. This karma comes again and again
to afflict your hita, causing ahita, what you don’t like. Whenever ahita comes you should not let it prevail upon you, you should say
neti, neti, “ not that, not that.” In this way you can become absolutely doubtless about your hita, in other words, what you like to be
or what makes you happy. If you meditate that you are all light and all happiness, no one can keep you from it.
This combination of Viraj and Indra brings you the highest happiness, which is becoming one with the Total. Remain in it. How
about your hands and legs moving, your lungs breathing and your senses functioning? These never cease, but you can just say “I
am not that.” You experience everything, but there is a silence in it. You are not restraining or restricting, just allowing things to be.
At the same time, your mind is in a state of total reflection.
This brings you what Narayana Guru calls the state of all-knowingness. When you know everything, you are That.
Sanskrit
Hita — f^cT
hita - ffcT
I
Idam
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Idam —... “this”
1. The Veda often uses this term to refer to the manifested universe.
2. Advaita Vedanta uses this term to refer to the foundation (adhisthana) of illusions. The “this” in the perception of a snake super¬
imposed upon a rope, is the rope which is the basis of the illusion of the snake.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
idam -
this, this here, referring to something near the speaker;
known, present;
this earthly world, this universe;
here, to this place;
now, even, just;
there;
with these words;
in this manner
Narayana Guru tradition
Prasad. The philosophy of Narayana Guru
Idam: This. Stands for “this world,” the world here and now.
Descriptions
General
Muller. The Upanishads, Part 2
In English it may seem to make little difference whether we say, ‘Brahman was this,’ or ‘this was Brahman.’ In Sanskrit too we
find, Brahma khalv idam vava sarvam, ‘Brahman indeed is all this’ (Maitr. Up. IV, 6), and Sarvam khalv idam Brahma, ‘all this is
Brahman indeed’ (Khand. Up. Ill, 14, i). But the logical meaning is always that Brahman was all this, i. e. all that we see now, Brah¬
man being the subject, idam the predicate. Brahman becomes idam, not idam Brahman.
Narayana Guru tradition
Nitya. That alone, the core of wisdom
... all knowledge begins by saying idam, this. Bertrand Russell, in his Logical Positivism, makes an analysis of what he calls atom¬
ic sentences. In them, the nuclear aspect is ‘this’.
Ramana Maharshi tradition
Ramana. Talks with Sri Ramana Maharshi
The mind is formed of thoughts only Idam (this) is the object and aham (T) is the subject; the two together form the vijnanamaya-
kosa (intellect-sheath)...
Another devotee: Is it not that the T exists only in relation to a ‘this’ (aham - idam)?
M.: T, ‘this’ appear together now. But ‘this’ is contained (vyaptam) in the T - they are not apart. ‘This’ has to merge into and be¬
come one with T. The T that remains over is the true T.
Ramakrishna tradition
Vidyaranya. Panchadashi, tr. Swahananda
18. Whatever of this world is perceived by the senses, the organs of action, the mind, reasoning and the scriptural texts, is re¬
ferred to as ‘this’ (idam) in the Shruti text that follows.
19. “Before all this was created there was Being alone, one only, without a second; there was neither name nor form”, so said
Aruni.
Sivananda tradition
Chinmayananda. Mandukya Upanishad
(34) This manifold plurality does not exist as identified with the Atman. Nor can it remain ever independently of itself. It is neither
separate from Brahman, nor is the plurality non-separate from It. So say the realised wise men of the Upanishads.
Commentary by Chinmayananda:
... Here the pluralistic world of phenomena is indicated by a beautiful expression which cannot be replaced; Idam (This). The phe¬
nomenal world is indicated by the term This '; all that we can perceive as ‘This’ and gain thereby a knowledge of them belong to
the world-of-objects.
... Note that Idam (this) was used to indicate the world-of-objects (Yushmath pronoun); and Ayam (this) is used to indicate the
world-of-subject (Asmath pronoun).
Related words
Aham
Vijnanamaya kosha
Sanskrit _
Idam —
idam -
Indian philosophy
Summary
General
Encyclopedia of philosophy
Indian philosophy. The “India” in question is the Indian subcontinent—the land constituting present-day India, Pakistan, Bangla¬
desh, and surrounding countries such as Sri Lanka to the south and Bhutan, Sikkim, Afghanistan, and Nepal to the north. And
although philosophy in the sense in question covers much of what is covered by the term philosophy in its contemporary usage
in English-speaking countries, it also has a specific use in the Indian context, in which it refers to the thoughts expressed in the
literature relating to liberation (moksa; nirvana). In this usage, philosophy, and the philosophical literature of India, is contrasted
in Indian thinking with the literature pertaining to other matters, notably the literature concerned with political and social concerns
(arthasastra), with interpersonal relations such as the sexual and aesthetic dimensions of love (kamasastra), and with morals
(dharmasastra), each of which has a pertinent literature of its own. The “philosophical” literature of India, then, relates to ultimate
concerns, especially how to achieve liberation from rebirths and the nature of a universe in which liberation is possible and avail¬
able. It is a literature that does not primarily include such Western fields of philosophy as political and social philosophy (for that
is artha), aesthetics (for that is kama) and ethics (for that is dharma). It also does not include the literature concerning the natural
and social sciences (although it is arguable that parts of Indian philosophy are offshoots of aspects of early Indian protoscience) or
the applied sciences (agriculture, astronomy, and so on); nor does it include the domain of poetry and prose literature.
Deussen. Outlines of Indian Philosophy
The philosophy of the Indians must become for every one who takes any interest in the investigation of philosophical truth, an
object of the highest interest; for Indian philosophy is and will be the only possible parallel to what so far the Europeans have con¬
sidered as philosophy. ... the whole of European thought from Pythagoras and Xenophanes, from Moses and Zoroaster, through
Platonism and Christianity down to the Kantian and post-Kantian philosophy, forms a complex of ideas, whose elements are var¬
iously related to and dependent on each other. On the other hand Indian philosophy through all the centuries of its development
has taken its course uninfluenced by West-Asiatic and European thought; and precisely for this reason the comparison of Europe¬
an philosophy with that of the Indians is of the highest interest.
Wikipedia
The term Indian philosophy (Sanskrit: Darshanas), may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in
the Indian subcontinent, including Hindu philosophy, Buddhist philosophy, and Jain philosophy. Having the same or rather inter¬
twined origins, all of these philosophies have a common underlying theme of Dharma, and similarly attempt to explain the attain¬
ment of emancipation. They have been formalized and promulgated chiefly between 1,000 BC to a few centuries A.D, with resid¬
ual commentaries and reformations continuing up to as late as the 20th century by Aurobindo and ISKCON among others, who
provided stylized interpretations.
The characteristic of these schools is that they may belong to one “masthead” and disagree with each other, or be in agreement
while professing allegiance to different banners. An example of the latter is the non- Vedic Jain and the Vedic Samkhya schools,
both of which have similar ideas on pluralism; an example of the former would be the Dvaita and the Advaita schools, both of
whom are Vedic. However, every school has subtle differences.
Competition between the various schools was intense during their formative years, especially between 800 BC to 200 AD. Some
like the Jain, Buddhist, Shaiva and Advaita schools survived, while others like Samkhya and Ajivika did not. The Sanskrit term for
“philosopher” is darsanika, one who is familiar with the systems of philosophy, or darsanas.
Descriptions
Periods of Indian philosophy
General
Deussen. Outlines of Indian Philosophy
India falls into three parts — (1) the Panjab, (2) the plain of the Ganges, (3) the Deccan plateau. To these three geographical
divisions correspond the three periods of Indian life: — (1) The domain of the Aryan Hindus in the oldest period was limited to the
valley of the Indus with its five tributaries; the only literary monuments of this epoch are the 1017 hymns of the Rigveda. Though
chiefly serving religious purposes they give by the way a lively and picturesque delineation of that primitive manner of life in which
there were no castes, no agramas (stages of life), and no Brahmanical order of life in general. The hymns of the Rigveda display
not only the ancient Indian polytheism in its full extent, but contain also in certain of the later hymns the first germs of a philosoph¬
ical view of the world. (2) It may have been about 1000 B. C. that the Aryans starting from the Panjab began to extend their con¬
quests to the east and occupied little by little the plain extending from the Himalayas in the north and the Vindhyas in the south
to the mouth of the Ganges. The conquest of this territory may have been accomplished, roughly speaking, between 1000 and
500 B. C. As literary monuments of this second period of Indian life we find the Samhitas of the Yajur-, Sama-, and Atharvaveda,
together with the Brahmanas and their culmination in the Upanishads. Hand in hand with this literary development we have under
the spiritual dominion of the Brahmans the establishment of that original organisation which as the Brahmanical order of life has
survived in India with some modification until the present day. (3) After these two periods, which we may distinguish as “old-Vedic”
and “new-Vedic”, follows a third period of Indian history — the “post-Vedic” — beginning about 500 B. C. with the rise of the hereti¬
cal tendencies of Buddhism and Jainism, and producing in the succeeding centuries a large number of literary works in which, to¬
gether with poetry, grammar, law, medicine and astronomy, a rich collection of philosophical works in Sanskrit permits us to trace
the development of the philosophical mind down to the present time. In this period Indian, i. e., Brahmanical, civilisation makes its
way round the coast of Southern India and Ceylon and penetrates conquering into the remotest districts of Central India.
Wikipedia
pre-1500 BCE - the Vedas and early prose Upanishads
pre-500 BCE - the Jaina, the Buddha, the Bhagavad Gita, the Manu Smriti
pre-300 BCE - the rise of the orthodox Darshanas
200 CE - Nagarjuna and the rise of Mahayana Buddhism
800 CE - Shankaracharya and the peak of Vedanta
post-900 CE - rise of dualistic/qualified dualistic Vedantic schools: Visishtadvaita, Dvaita, etc.
Systems of Indian philosophy
Common classification
Hindu philosophy
Jain philosophy
General
Wikipedia
Jainism came into formal being after Mahavira synthesized philosophies and promulgations, during the period around 550 BC, in
the region that is present day Bihar in northern India. This period marked an ideological renaissance, in which the patriarchal Ve-
dic dominance was challenged by various groups. Buddhism also arose during this period.
Jains however believe that the Jaina philosophy was in fact revived by Mahavira, whom they consider as the 24th and final Jain
Tirthankars (enlightened seers), a line that stretches to time immemorial. The 23rd seer, Parsva may be dated to around 900 B.C.
The Hindu scholar, Lokmanya Tilak credited Jainism with influencing Hinduism in the area of the cessation of animal sacrifice in
Vedic rituals. Bal Gangadhar Tilak has described Jainism as the originator of Ahimsa...
A Jain is a follower of Jinas, spiritual ‘victors’ (Jina is Sanskrit for ‘victor’), human beings who have rediscovered the dharma,
become fully liberated and taught the spiritual path for the benefit of beings. Jains follow the teachings of 24 special Jinas who
are known as Tirthankars (‘ford- builders’). The 24th and most recent Tirthankar, Lord Mahavira, lived in c.6th century BC, which
was a period of cultural revolution all over the world. Socrates was born in Greece, Zoroaster in Persia, Lao-Tse and Confucious
in China and Mahavira and Buddha in India. The 23rd Thirthankar of Jains, Lord Parsvanatha is recognised now as a historical
person, lived during 872 to 772 B.C. Jaina tradition is unanimous in making Rishabha, as the First Tirthankar.
One of the main characteristics of Jain belief is the emphasis on the immediate consequences of one’s physical and mental be¬
havior. Because Jains believe that everything is in some sense alive with many living beings possessing a soul, great care and
awareness is required in going about one’s business in the world. Jainism is a religious tradition in which all life is considered to
be worthy of respect and Jain teaching emphasises this equality of all life advocating the non- harming of even the smallest crea¬
tures.
Non-violence ( Ahimsa) is the basis of right View, the condition of right Knowledge and the kernel of right Conduct in Jainism.
Jainism encourages spiritual independence (in the sense of relying on and cultivating one’s own personal wisdom) and self-control
(3RTT, vratae) which is considered vital for one’s spiritual development. The goal, as with other Indian religions, is moksha which in
Jainism is realization of the soul’s true nature, a condition of omniscience (Kevala Jnana). Anekantavada is one of the principles of
Jainism positing that reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is completely true.
Jain doctrine states that only Kevalis, those who have infinite knowledge, can know the true answer, and that all others would only
know a part of the answer. Anekantavada is related to the Western philosophical doctrine of Subjectivism.
Buddhist philosophy
General
Wikipedia
Buddhist philosophy is a system of beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, an Indian prince later known as the
Buddha(from Sanskrit “buddhi”, enlightenment).
From its inception, Buddhism has had a strong philosophical component. Buddhism is founded on the rejection of certain ortho¬
dox Hindu philosophical concepts. The Buddha criticized all concepts of metaphysical being and non- being as misleading views
caused by reification, and this critique is inextricable from the founding of Buddhism.
Buddhism shares many philosophical views with other Indian systems, such as belief in karma, a cause-and- effect relationship
between all that has been done and all that will be done. Events that occur are held to be the direct result of previous events.
However, a major difference is the Buddhist rejection of a permanent, self- existent soul (atman). This view is a central one in Hin
du thought but is rejected by all Buddhists.
General
Encyclopedia of philosophy
It is, indeed, impossible to give a finite list of Indian systems of philosophy. For one thing, new schools are being founded even
now; their durability might be far from certain, but some recent ones have their adherents. For another thing, it is not always clear
how to differentiate one system from another.
Common assumptions in Indian philosophy
General
Encyclopedia of philosophy
All [major] systems in this survey accept at least two relevant theses: The first is that there was no absolute beginning of things,
that the series of lives each of us has lived is without beginning. This doctrine of beginninglessness (anaditva) entails, of course,
that there can be no God who created us ab initio or who functions as the first cause of the universe. As we shall see, this does
not necessarily stop Indian philosophers talking about God (isvara); various roles are assigned to Him aside from that of ultimate
creator.
The other thesis generally accepted by all systems except Carvaka is what is often referred to as the “karma theory” or the “law
of karma.” Although many details about how karma works can be gleaned from the pages of the Indian philosophical literature,
karma remains an assumption underlying all philosophical theories rather than a theory itself. It is infrequently defended, merely
assumed.
Wikipedia
Indian thinkers viewed philosophy as a practical necessity that needed to be cultivated in order to understand how life can best
be led. It became a custom for Indian writers to explain at the beginning of philosophical works how it serves human ends (pu-
rusartha). They centered philosophy on an assumption that there is a unitary underlying order, which is all pervasive and omni¬
scient. The efforts by various schools were concentrated on explaining this order. All major phenomena like those observed in
nature, fate, occurrences, etc. were outcomes of this order.
The earliest mention of this appears in the Rig Veda, which speaks of the Brahman, or the universally transcendent and “ethereal
building block of all the world. It is described as dimensionless, timeless and beyond reach of the known frontiers of happiness
and knowledge.
The idea of rta, translated as “righteousness” or “the cosmic and social order” by Gavin Flood, also plays an important role. The
Indian philosophy is different from western philosophy: in their basic approach Indian philosophy is not only based on reason as
the western philosophy is, instead as the word implies darshana it focuses on the real encountering of the truth and ultimate and
that’s why all the Indian schools whether believe in god or not but they all have the same concepts of encountering the truth by
some practical practises. The most important school of Indian philosophy is vedanta.
Modern philosophy
General
Wikipedia
Modern Indian philosophy was developed during British period (1750- 1947). The philosophers in this era gave contemporary
meaning to traditional philosophy. Swami Vivekananda, Rabindranath Tagore, Sri Aurobindo, Ananda Coomaraswamy, Ramana
Maharshi and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan interpreted traditional Indian philosophy in terms of contemporary significance. Osho and
J. Krishnamurti developed their own schools of thought.
Today, there are several spiritual personalities: philosophers, teachers (gurus) or thinkers, such as Sri Sri Ravishankar, Deepak
Chopra, Amma, Anadamayi and movements such as the Brahmakumaris.
Indian philosophy and religion
General
Encyclopedia of philosophy
Whether Indian philosophy overlaps religion or not is a matter of how one thinks of “religion.” The majority of the early Indian
philosophical systems (darsana) do not acknowledge, and in some cases explicitly deny, the existence of a supreme being or lord
(isvara).
Related words
Hindu philosophy
Indra
Variant spellings
Indra
Indha
Definitions
General
Dictionary - Grimes
Indra — ... “ruler”; “chief (of the gods in the Vedic pantheon); mighty; powerful
1. The Vedic king of heaven. The god of thunder, lightning, and rain. The Deity identified with strength. Known as the god of the
atmosphere and sky as well as the god of rain, who in Vedic mythology, rules over the deities of the midregion and fights against,
and conquers with his thunderbolt the demons or forces of darkness.
Dictionary - Monier-Williams
indra -
the god of the atmosphere and sky;
the Indian Jupiter Pluvius or lord of rain (who in Vedic mythology reigns over the deities of the intermediate region or atmosphere;
he fights against and conquers with his thunder-bolt [vajra] the demons of darkness, and is in general a symbol of generous her¬
oism; indra was not originally lord of the gods of the sky, but his deeds were most useful to mankind, and he was therefore ad¬
dressed in prayers and hymns more than any other deity, and ultimately superseded the more lofty and spiritual Varuna; in the
later mythology indra is subordinated to the triad Brahman, Vishnu, and Siva, but remained the chief of all other deities in the
popular mind);
(he is also regent of the east quarter, and considered one of the twelve Adityas);
in the Vedanta he is identified with the supreme being;
best, excellent, the first, the chief (of any class of objects;
the pupil of the right eye (that of the left being called IndranT or Indra’s wife);
the number fourteen;
N. of a grammarian;
of a physician;
a vegetable poison;
the twenty-sixth Yoga or division of a circle on the plane of the ecliptic;
the Yoga star in the twenty-sixth Nakshatra, Pegasi;
the human soul, the portion of spirit residing in the body;
night
Lurker. Dictionary of Gods
Indra (the original meaning is ‘strong’, ‘mighty’) The supreme god in the Vedic pantheon. He brings rain, and is the heavenly rep¬
resentative of warriors; his weapon is the thunderbolt, which may have four or a hundred edges (vajra). He is red or gold in colour,
and he is mounted on horseback or sits in a chariot drawn by horses. As Vrtrahan, Indra is the great dragon-slayer, who frees the
streams obstructed by Vritra. In Hinduism, Indra is white in colour, clad in red, and he rides on the elephant Airavata which was
generated by churning the ocean of milk. He is ruler of the easterly quarter. IndranT or Saci (= power) are named as his wives, and
he is constantly accompanied by the Maruts. In Jainism, the word denotes the highest rank in divine hierarchies: that is to say,
each class of gods has its specific Indra.
Wikipedia
Indra ... or Sakra is the King of the demi-gods or Devas and Lord of Heaven or Svargaloka in Hindu mythology. He is also the God
of War, Storms, and Rainfall.
Indra is one of the chief deities in the Rigveda. He is celebrated as a demiurge who pushes up the sky, releases dawn (Ushas)
from the Vala cave, and slays Vrtra; both latter actions are central to the Soma sacrifice. On the other hand, he also commits (like
Zeus) many kinds of mischief (kilbisa) for which he is sometimes punished. He has many epithets, notably vrsan the bull, and
vrtrahan, slayer of Vrtra and maghavan “the bountiful’. Indra appears as the name of an arch-demon in the Zoroastrian religion,
while his epithet Verethragna appears as a god of victory.
In Puranic mythology, Indra is bestowed with a heroic and almost brash and amorous character at times, even as his reputation
and role diminished in later Hinduism with the rise of the Trimurti. In Buddhist tradition, Indra is also called Sakra (Pali: Sakka). He
is known in Burmese ...; in Thai ..., in Malay as Indera, in Tamil as Intiran, in Chinese as Dishitian, and in Japanese as ^
Taishakuten.
Descriptions
General
Encyclopedia of Hinduism
Indra is the king of the gods in the VEDIC pantheon. He is a symbol of strength and has the character of a warrior. He is associ¬
ated with the thunderstorm and is said to hold a lightning bolt in his hand. Many early Vedic hymns tell of his battle with the snake
demon, Vritra, in the course of which Indra splits a mountain to release the terrestrial waters that Vritra has held back. Indra also
fights a demon named Vala in order to release the “cows of the dawn,” perhaps indicating that he was the creator of daylight.
Indra’s enemies are the Dasas and Dasyus; these have often been taken to refer to the indigenous tribes of India, but the context
is not at all clear. At times the terms can best be translated as “enemy,” and at times they are seen to be mythological beings. In
the Vedas Indra is also known as a great drinker of Soma, an intoxicant used in the Vedic ritual. SOMA itself is seen as a god.
Indra is frequently invoked ritually in Vedic ritual. There are more hymns to him in RIG VEDA than to any other god. Sometimes he
is invoked along with AGNI (the god of fire), probably linking the main divinity of the heavens, Indra, with a primary terrestrial deity,
Agni, who is also the messenger of the gods.
The Vedic tradition often mentions Indra’s wife, Indrani. Post-Vedic mythology gives Indra the white elephant AIRAVATA as a
mount to ride. Eventually Indra loses his supremacy and begins to be challenged and even ridiculed. KRISHNA protects his village
from Indra by holding a mountain up as an umbrella to keep away his rains. Indra is cursed for consorting with a sage’s wife (AHA-
LYA) and is afflicted, in one version of the story, with 1,000 vaginas, which are then changed into 1,000 eyes to justify his common
Vedic epithet “thousand- eyed one.”
Mees. The Revelation in the Wilderness
In the older Vedic texts there is mention of Seven Adityas (Rig-veda IX; 114; 3 etc., Samavidhana Brahmana III; 1; 3; 3). In the lat¬
er period of the Brahmanas there are Twelve Adityas (Satapatha Brahmana IV; 5; 7; 2 etc.). Actually, more than twelve names of
Adityas are mentioned, therefore some names belong to alternative Gods or represent alternative functions of the same God. For
reasons which will become apparent later, we shall begin with the Aditya of Pisces, following Varuna, “the King”, who represents
Aquarius and is certainly the main Aditya.
Pisces is represented by the Aditya Indra or Hiranyagarbha. We have dwelt at length on the Indra or Jupiter of later Hindu tradi¬
tion. His prototype existed in the Aditya Indra. This Indra is associated with gathering Clouds and Rain. Pisces is a Water-House.
A Vedic hymn says that he “prepares the way for Surya”, that is, the Sun, who will rise in Aries, the Sign following on Pisces. It is
further said that he “caused him to shine”. The Resurrection is presided over by the Guru in the previous House. It is said in the
Rig-veda (X; 72) that “the Gods lifted Surya out of the Sea wherein he lay hidden”. The Sea represents Aquarius-Pisces or even
the entire stage of the Celestial Ocean.
... Vedic hymns say about Indra: “He contains all that exists as the tyre of a wheel contains the spokes.” The Wheel being the Path
of the Zodiac, Jupiter, Lord of the Ether, appearing at the beginning in Pisces and at the end in Sagittarius, rules the Four Ele¬
ments. “Not a hundred heavens and a hundred earths, with a thousand suns — no, not all created worlds could contain him.” This
is the case because heavens, earths and suns are created forms of Manifestation. The Lord of the World contains all as the tyre
contains the wheel. He towers over all as the Summit over the Mountain.
Wikipedia
Origins
Aspects of Indra as a deity are cognate to other Indo-European gods; they are either thunder gods such as Thor, Perun, and
Zeus, or gods of intoxicating drinks such as Dionysos. The name of Indra (Indara) is also mentioned among the gods of the Mitan-
ni, a Hurrian speaking people who ruled northern Syria from ca.1500BC-1300BC.
In the Rig Veda
Indra is, with Varuna and Mitra, one of the Adityas, the chief gods of the Rigveda (besides Agni and the others such as the Ash-
vins). He delights in drinking Soma, and the central Vedic myth is his heroic defeat of Vrtra, liberating the rivers, or alternatively,
his smashing of the Vala cave, a stone enclosure where the Panis had imprisoned the cows that are habitually identified with Ush-
as, the dawn(s). He is the god of war, smashing the stone fortresses of the Dasyu,but he is also is invoked by combatants on both
sides in the Battle of the Ten Kings.
The Rig-Veda frequently refers to him as Sakra: the mighty-one. In the Vedic period, the number of gods was assumed to be thir¬
ty-three and Indra was their lord. (Some early post Rigvedic texts such as the Khilas and the late Vedic Brihad-Aranyaka Upani-
shad enumerates the gods as the eight Vasus, the eleven Rudras, the twelve Adityas, Indra, and Prajapati). As lord of the Vasus,
Indra was also referred to as Vasava.
By the age of the Vedanta, Indra became the prototype for all lords and thus a king could be called Manavendra (Indra or lord
of men) and Rama, the hero of the Ramayana, was referred to as Raghavendra (Indra of the clan of Raghu). Hence the original
Indra was also referred to as Devendra (Indra of the Devas). However, Sakra and Vasava were used exclusively for the original
Indra. Though modern texts usually adhere to the name Indra, the traditional Hindu texts (the Vedas, epics and Puranas) use In¬
dra, Sakra and Vasava interchangeably and with the same frequency.
Status and function
In the Rig Veda, Indra is the king of the gods and ruler of the heavens. Indra is the god of thunder and rain and a great warrior, a
symbol of courage and strength. He leads the Deva (the gods who form and maintain Heaven) and the elements, such as Agni
(Fire), Varuna (Water) and Surya (Sun), and constantly wages war against the opponents of the gods, the demon-like Asuras. As
the god of war, he is also regarded as one of the Guardians of the directions, representing the east. As the favourite ‘national’ god
of the Vedic Indians, Indra has about 250 hymns dedicated to him in the Rigveda.
Characteristics
In Rig Veda, Indra the solar god is sometimes described as golden-bodied (“Gora” that means golden-yellowish) with golden jaw,
nails, hair, beard.
One Atharva Vedic verse reads, “In Indra are set fast all forms of golden hue.”
In the RV 1.65 reads, “SAKRA, who is the purifier (of his worshipers), and well-skilled in horses, who is wonderful and golden-bod¬
ied.” Rig Veda also reads that Indra “is the dancing god who, clothed in perfumed garments, golden-cheeked rides his golden
cart.” One passage calls him both brown and yellow. “Him with the fleece they purify, brown, golden-hued, beloved of all, Who with
exhilarating juice goes forth to all the deities”
Indra’s weapon, which he used to kill Vritra, is the (Vajra), though he also uses a bow, a net, and a hook. In the post-Vedic period,
he rides a large, four-tusked white elephant called Airavata. When portrayed having four arms, he has lances in two of his hands
which resemble elephant goads. When he is shown to have two, he holds the Vajra and a bow. He lives in Svarga in the clouds
around Mt. Meru. Deceased warriors go to his hall after death, where they live without sadness, pain or fear. They watch the
Apsaras and the Gandharvas dance, and play games. The gods of the elements, celestial sages, great kings, and warriors enrich
his court.
Relations with other gods
In Hindu myth, he is married to Indrani (whose father, Puloman, Indra killed), and is the father of Arjuna (by Kunti), Jayanta, Mid-
husa, Nilambara, Khamla, Rbhus, Rsabha. Indra is a brother to Surya. He is attended to by the Maruts (and the Vasus), children
of Diti (mother of demons), and Rudra. Indra had slain Diti’s previous wicked children, so she hoped her son would be more pow¬
erful than him and kept herself pregnant for a century, practicing magic to aid her fetal son. When Indra discovered this, he threw
a thunderbolt at her and shattered the fetus into 7 or 49 parts; each part regenerated into a complete individual, and the parts
grew into the Maruts, a group of storm gods, who are less powerful than Indra.
Indra and Vrtra
In post-Vedic myth, Vrtra, an asura, stole all the water in the world and Indra drank much Soma to prepare himself for the battle
with the huge serpent. He passed through Vrtra’s ninety-nine fortresses, slew the monster and brought water back to Earth.
In another version of the story, Vrtra was created by Tvashtri to get revenge for Indra’s murder of his son, Trisiras, a pious Brah¬
min whose increase of power worried Indra. Vrtra won the battle and swallowed Indra, but the other gods forced him to vomit Indra
out. The battle continued and Indra fled. Vishnu and the Rishis brokered a truce, and Indra swore he would not attack Vrtra with
anything made of metal, wood, or stone, nor anything that was dry or wet, or during the day or the night. Indra used the foam from
the waves of the ocean to kill him at twilight.
In yet another version, recounted in the Mahabharata, Vrtra was a Brahmin who got hold of supernatural powers, went rogue and
became a danger to the gods. Indra had to intervene, and slew him after a hard fight. A horrible goddess named Brahmanahatya
(the personified sin of Brahmin murder) came from the dead corpse of Vrtra and pursued Indra, who hid inside a lotus flower. Indra
went to Brahma and begged forgiveness for having killed a Brahmin. “Vajrayudha”, which Indra possessed, is believed to be pre¬
pared from backbone of a sage Dadhichi to kill Asuras.
In the Puranas
In post-Vedic texts, Indra is described with more human characteristics and vices than any other Vedic deity. Modern Hindus, also
tend to see Indra as minor deity in comparison to others in the Hindu pantheon, such as Shiva, Vishnu, or Devi. A Puranic story il¬
lustrating the subjugation of Indra’s pride is illustrated in the story of Govardhan hill where Krishna, Avatar or incarnation of Vishnu
carried the hill and protected his devotees when Indra, angered by non-worship of him, launched rains over the village.
Gautama's curse
Indra tricked Ahalya, the wife of Gautama Maharishi, in the guise of the saint into letting him make love to her. He was punished
by Gautama with a curse that one t 
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